Beliefs in Society

Science

Aspires to be free from 'beliefs' and claims to be value free

Ideology

A set of beliefs or principles supporting the interests of a social group

Substantive definition of religion

Focus is on the content (substance) of religious belief, such as a belief in God or the supernatural

Functional definition of religion

Focuses on what the religion does for people (its functions)

Social constructionist definition of religion

Focuses on what religion means to each individual person (micro approach)

Durkheim

Purpose of religion: to divide the world into sacred (things considered special, extraordinary or awe-inspiring in some way) and profane (everyday, non-sacred aspects of life)

Durkheim

Religion creates value consensus by ensuring agreement of what is seen as sacred. Agreement leads to social solidarity and a collective consciousness

Durkheim

Study of Totemism in Australian Aboriginal societies: Each clan/society has a totem which displays a symbol (usually a plant or a bird) that is sacred for the clan. D=When they worship totems, they worship society. Religion promotes sense of belonging; value consensus, social solidarity, collective consciousness reinforced

Malinowski

Trobriand Islands- religion is used a) as a coping mechanism during times of anxiety, uncertainty or tension such as in the event of life crises or b) times when the outcome of important activities are uncertain to feel in control.

Life crises=birth, marriage, death

Parsons

Mechanism of adjustment=religion gives individuals a sense of meaning, helps with understanding + coping with tragedies that could otherwise undermine our faith in society and prevent social order.

Structural differentiation has led to religion becoming increasingly specialized and religion performs fewer functions as society became industrialised.

Bellah

-Civil religion=Even though Americans have different religious belief systems, they are united by their faith in America and the worship of American values. Maintains value consensus and social solidarity through the use of collective rituals e.g. 4th July

-Followers of religions such as Christianity and Judaism are expressing Americanism: to be religious is to be stoutly patriotic.

Marx

Religion is an ISA, supported by economic base of society

Marx

Two functions of religion

Instrument of oppression: religion reproduces and justifies inequality by suggesting the existing social order is "god given"

-Cushioning the effects of oppression: religion is the "Opium of the people" aka it eases the pain of oppression and helps them cope. Masks oppression (false class consciousness) to prevent change/revolution

Lenin

"Spiritual gin"- religion is a form of escapism which numbs and blinds people's awareness to the reality around them

Leach

Church of England supports upper class and does little to reduce inequality- 80% of Bishops attended independent schools and Oxbridge.

Gramsci

Hegemony- people know of their oppression but don't do anything to change it. r/c dominates mind of proletariat, religion plays a role in this control. However, religion has been used to support interests of oppressed classes before, and therefore could be used to challenge the dominant r/c ideology and hegemonic control of the masses

Maduro

Gramsci in practise: In developing countries where the church and religion remain dominant, religion has the power to create social change. In places like Latin America, members of the clergy have the power to voice and reflect the proletariat's experience of oppression.

Althusser

ISAs- institutions that spread ideas

RSAs-institutions which oppress and control people through force. Religion as an ISA can be used to create social change, but if an ISA tries the RSAs will respond with force to stop any kind of revolution. ISAs need to overcome RSAs to produce change

Burmese Monks

2007, Burma: peaceful non -violent protests against national government/ military rule. Many arrested or detained, peaceful protests continue

Archbishop Tutu

Spoke out against Apartheid (institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991). Continues to speak out today.

Martin Luther King

American Baptist Minister, spokesperson and leader in Civil Rights movement

Woodhead

Women not allowed to be priests due to general religious rejection and unease RE: women's liberation. H/W Walby critic: religion can provide a clear role for women

Walby

Many of world's religions teach that a women's place is in the nurturing role of mother and housewife

Woodhead and Heelas

Converting to Orthodox Judaism for clear role to fulfill, removed from conflicting roles in modern life

Aldridge

The veil is a powerful symbol of patriarchy as it strips women of their identity, leaves them invisible and forces their anonymity. Sexual pleasure, esp. for women, is condemned and sexuality for non-reproductive purposes is prohibited e.g. FGM and Catholics vs contraception.

Watson

Aldridge is very ethnocentric. The veil is a symbol of liberation as it allows them to enter the public sphere while avoiding the male gaze.

Holm

Women's menstruation is nearly always seen as polluting

Talaq

"I divorce you" in arabic: men only have to say this three times to their wives to divorce, no reason or explanation needed, whereas women have to go through the court and must prove serious misconduct in order to divorce.

Hervieu-Leger

Religion is now a personal choice for individuals rather than an inherited, fixed identity. Individuals have become "spiritual shoppers"; we are consumers with choices about the religious beliefs and practises we choose to engage with.

Lyon

Agrees with Hervieu-Leger that religion has become a commodity and individuals have become consumers of religion. More prominent due to globalisation. This has led to the relocation of religion; religion has become "disembedded" from real life, now expressed via the internet and the media.

Bauman

Postmodernity has led to a "crisis of meaning": no longer a stable sense of morality. There are no universal truths about the universe and its meaning due to increased diversity, fragmentation of beliefs and values and decline in collective values. People turns to religion to provide meaning and moral guidance in an uncertain world

Weber

Protestant ethic thesis: Origins of the 'ethics' of capitalism lie in the beliefs of the Calvinist branch of Protestantism. Beliefs + economic conditions= capitalism. Interpretivist approach to understanding religion=the meanings religion gives to otherwise meaningless actions.

Theodicy of disprivilege-the belief of the promise that salvation may be granted as a reward for earthly poverty.

Demystification (removal of mystery) process leading to "disenchantment of the world"- world becomes increasingly dominated by rational ideas and not by magic, mystery and the supernatural.

Calvinist beliefs: Pre-Destination

God has already decided who is to be 'saved' in the afterlife and that these decisions cannot be changed and will remain unknown. In order to cope with this uncertainty, Calvinists would look for signs of God's favour in their day-to-day lives incl. economic success as an indicator that they are one of the chosen few

Calvinist beliefs: Hard Work

A God-given duty and a way of honouring God

Calvinist beliefs: Ascetic lifestyle

Accumulating wealth through minimal spending

Berger

Religion provides a "universe of meaning" (source of meaning to help them make sense of the world, incl. answers to questions about life, death etc.) and a "sacred canopy" (stretches over society and protects individuals from the uncertainties, meaninglessness and pointlessness of life via helping interpret and make sense of the world and their position in it)

Conservative force

Religion is viewed by functionalists, new/christian right, traditional marxism and radical feminists as a means of keeping society the same, in some cases maintaining traditional values and beliefs.

Revolutionary force

Religion is viewed by Weber, Neo-Marxism, Nelson and McGuire* as a tool which can be used to create change in society

Source of stability

Religion maintains social order and keeps society running smoothly

Source of conflict

Religion creates disagreement between social groups leading to disorder and inequality

El Saadawi

Islam has been used to justify the oppression of women and reinforce the patriarchal ideology. Patriarchy is the true source of their oppression, but men have used religion as a justification for patriarchal oppression e.g. FGM.

Nelson

"Far from encouraging people to accept their place, religion can spearhead resistance and revolution" e.g. Iranian Revolution and Archbishop Tutu's opposition to the Apartheid.

McGuire

Religion can lead to social change, but only if the right circumstances are in place (4 factors for change). Not all religions are the same and not all societies are as susceptible to change as others.

McGuire's factors for religion + social change

Beliefs and practises of the religion. Some religious organisations have moral codes which are critical of society, and therefore seek to change it. Others are less concerned with this world and more centred on the spiritual, so are less interested in making change.

McGuire's factors for religion + social change

The culture of the society. In societies where religious beliefs are central to the culture, religion may be used as a justification for any social change.

McGuire's factors for religion + social change

The organisation's relationship to society. Some religious organisations are much more central to the cultural, political and economic life of a society, These organisations are more likely to produces social change as they are more influential.

McGuire's factors for religion + social change

In times where religion has led to social change, there has been a charismatic leader to lead the revolution and condemn the existing society.

Wilson

Modern day society has been subject to rapid social change, leading to uncertainty and anomie as increased diversity of beliefs leads to a lack of shared values. This has led people to turn to religious organisations like sects as their strict and clearly defined lifestyles offer certainty in an uncertain world.

Weber- churches

Troeltsch- difference between church and sects, then identified cults.

Niebhur- Denominations

Traditional Typology: who found what?

Church

Bureaucratic, hierarchical structure with paid officials- often powerful and wealthy individuals. Low commitment, influences politics, Tend to be intolerant of other religions and claim a monopoly of truth. Members are often upper class or recruited middle class. Examples: Church of England, Roman Catholic.

Denomination

Less hierarchy than church, integrated with the world, accepts secular (non-religious) culture, members often disillusioned with the church. World accommodating, tolerant of other religions, self-selecting membership that often doesn't appeal to others. Examples: Neo-pentacostalism

Sect

Often no hierarchy of paid officials or bureaucracy but a more egalitarian structure. The members have a tight knit community and there is a single charismatic leader. High commitment, world rejecting, Claim a monopoly of truth, with only members being the "saved and chosen ones". Members are usually oppressed, poor and marginalised as the sect offers what they don't have. Examples: Claude Rael's Raelians, Westboro Baptist Church*

Cult

No hierarchy: therapist/ practitioners and client relationship. Low commitment, world affirming, not seen as religious as they see themselves as spiritual, tolerant of other religions. Followers usually have above average incomes who feel something is missing from their lives.

Wallis

New Religious Movements (NRMs) typology created, based on their world view.

Takes into account the considerable diveristy of NRM's and the way they respond to both internal and external factors.

World Accommodating NRM

Clear hierarchy, low commitment. Tolerant of other religions/ no monopoly of truth, large membership of mainly w/c. Examples: Neo-pentacostalism

World Rejecting NRM

No hierarchy but a charismatic leader. High commitment, intolerant of other religions/monopoly of truth. Generally a small membership with restricted contact and movement. Examples: Raelians, Moonies, Heaven's gate

World Affirming NRM

No hierarchy; followers and clients rather than formal members, who carry on with their normal lives with little social control over them. Tolerant of other religions/no monopoly of truth. Spiritual, large membership of mainly upper class. Examples: Yoga, Buddhism, crystal healing

Bruce

New Age Movements (NAMs) typology of cults created on the basis of their impact on/meaning for individuals and the self, focusing on new age beliefs, personal development and fulfillment

NAM

Typology: Loose/ no formal structure or coherent organisation. Low level of commitment: believers, not members. Tolerant of other religions.

New Psychology/Spirituality

Focus on improving yourself. Membership varies, but is predominately female:

Middle class (psychotherapy)

Working class (spiritualism)

Examples: Spiritualism, faith healing, tarot cards, tai chi, meditation, mindfulness

New Ecology

Focus on the earth. Middle class, mainly female. Examples: paganism, veganism, gaia, wicca, organic foods.

New Science

Outer worldly beliefs (aliens) or opposing western science (old science). Self-selecting membership; members tend to opt in and out. Anyone can join. Examples (aliens): Paranormal activity, alien abduction. Examples (old science): Feng shui, astrology, herbalism

Heelas

3 types of NAM membership: fully engaged, serious part-timers, casual part-timers.

Self-religions appeal to affluent (wealthy), university educated, socially integrated and successful middle class people who find something missing in their lives despite their success. Seek ways of connecting with 'inner selves' to improve success

Lyotard

Postmodern society= loss of faith in meta narratives.

Baudrillard

"Media saturated society"- Expansion of different forms of digital media has led to the ability for people to pick and mix beliefs

Niebuhr

Sects are short-lived as they either evolve into larger, more socially accepted denominations or die out.

-Members come from margins of society, but social status rises to not fit in with rejection. They modify beliefs to further fit in

-Next generation are unlikely to show same enthusiasm and commitment as their parents, so more likely to make with and be less critical of wider society

-As success rises, more officials, toning down of views and rise in status: they become a denomination e.g. Quakers were a sect in 17th century, but within a few generations they moderated their beliefs and entered mainstream society

Yinger

Eval of Niebuhr: some become established sects by isolating themselves from the outside world e.g. Amish in Pennsylvania. Leaders of the sect keep outside influences at bay by banning their members from watching television and using computers

Wilson

If a sect wants to convert others, they are Conversionists. Typically found in USA, use large-scale revivalist to generate conversion. They can become a denomination without compromising their primary aim- they can still save souls

If they want to prepare themselves for the Day of Judgement, they are Adventists. They must separate themselves from today's sinful and corrupt society and await the second coming of Christ. Only membership of the sect will guarantee them a place in the new world order. They cannot become a denomination- they need to be separated from society, not integrated with it.

Ashworth and Farthing

Support findings of YouGov in 2015 (more than 60% of people who regularly attend church are middle class, and only 38% are working class) with their own findings suggesting those in professional occupations or management roles are much more likely to regularly attend church than the poorest members of society.

Niebuhr

Denominations are less heavily linked to the state and mainstream society and so appeal more to those who are marginalised or feel exploited and oppressed by mainstream society.

Bruce and Heelas

Cults and New Age movements appeal to those who are fulfilled in other areas of life i.e. those who are successful and wealthy, but who may be lacking in spirituality and hope to fill that void.

Voas and Crockett

Aging effect- People turn to religion as they get older due to the threat of death and ill health and disengagement from society.

Generational effect- As society becomes more secular, each generation is less religious than the one before due to religious socialisation and secularisation. This is the most significant factor influencing patterns of religiousity between age groups.

Believing and belonging are falling at a similar rate

Lynch

Young people may be finding religious feelings inspired in them by parts of secular life rather than traditional religious e.g fandom culture. They state that young people may not have lost all religiosity, but that it's simply finding new forms (functional definition of religious used here)

Miller and Hoffman

Women are seen as the guardians of family life, and attending church and other religious activities have been seen as part of the woman's role in instilling moral values in their children

Trzebiatowska and Bruce

Men have been influenced by growing secularisation of society before women, meaning that congregations have become dominated by women. They predict as women's role in society become equal to men's that the gender gap in religion will close.

Bruce

Religion offers a source of support and provides a sense of identity in response to the uncertainty and potential hostility and racism faced when joining a new society. Provides means of maintaining traditions and developing social solidarity and group cohesion.

Johal

Many young British Asians are actually creating their own hybrid identities which he calls Brasian. Brasians might value the religious beliefs of their parents as important, but may reject some cultural traditions such as arranged marriage or restrictions on drinking.

Wilson

-Identifying 5 measures of secularisation: Religious participation and beliefs, religious disengagement, religious pluralism, desacrilisation and rationalisation and secularisation of religious instutions

Wilson

-decline in church attendance: 1851= 40%, 2010 6%

(David) Martin

Questions "golden age of religion" and argues that it may not have happened. People might have gone to church in the past to seem respectable rather than because they were particularly religious.

Wilson

Religious organisations have seen a decline in their power, wealth, influence and prestige. Decline in political role of the church especially declining control of education and social welfare. These roles have now been taken over by specialist secular parts of government.

Bruce

Church and state more separate- the church disagrees with the government.

Societalisation

The idea that secularisation is linked to the decline of community. The church used to be the centre of the community. Today, the church is simply not as involved in many communities as it was.

Martin

The church may have been corrupt in the past in its influence, so not a good influence! Today the church has more influence on spiritual matters. Not necessarily indicated a decline in influence.

Wilson

Religious pluralism means that religion is no longer promoting value consensus or social solidarity, so it has lost its force as an integrating influence and so cannot unite.

Ecumenical movement (bringing churches together) was a sign religion was getting weaker not becoming stronger.

As society is increasingly organised rationally; people are in contact with these ideas through work and daily life. Knowledge becomes based on reason and not faith

Bruce

Lots of religions to choose from reinforces the idea that beliefs are a personal preference, a choice, an option. Choice leads to religions competing which undermines their credibility

Stark and Bainbridge

-Religion as a compensator (making up for something)- NAMs and NRMs are becoming important in meeting the needs of individuals

-Religion thrives in the US because there has never been a religious monopoly there.

-Main factor influencing level of religious participation is not the demand, but the supply. More choice and less restriction= more participation. Decline of religion is not a universal trend happening in all societies

Bruce

Scientific discoveries have explained lots of events e.g. earthquakes so religious explanations are less credible. People have begun to turn to science not religion for answers.

Herberg

Churches themselves have become less religious. Seen especially in the US where the church is seen to have abandoned its original religious aims; there has been a decline in "authentic religion" (religion has become a way of life, and church attendance has become a way of expressing American identity/way of life. Religion has turned into a therapy).

Berger and Luckman

Support Herberg, claim that in the US the church had to adapt to continue to be seen as plausible, to be seen as rational and relevant.

Bruce

Some ideas in the UK have been watered down/ abandoned e.g. the virgin birth, heaven and hell

Glock and Stark

5 core dimensions of religiosity: belief (accept beliefs of a religion), practise (put their commitment into practise), experience (feeling like they've had a direct experience with supernatural force), knowledge (knowledge and understanding of the basis of their religion), consequences (behaviour will be affected day to day)

Bruce

Believing in a spiritual force of some sort may be halfway towards becoming secular rather than indicating a person is religious.

Davie

Explored the relationship between religion and modernity. People today may believe in religion but not belong in any formal organisations e.g. outpouring of belief post-9/11. Although people do not attend church as much, they are still claiming to believe in the supernatural and turn to religion in times of need. In fact, a minority of people are religious on behalf of a silent majority, and that those in the majority appreciate their efforts (vicarious religion)

Individuals are increasing part of a global economy which shapes their lives, but other which they have little or no control

Heelas and Woodhead

Set out to test the Spiritual Revolution Thesis via the Kendal Project. Researchers identified two possible trends: Secularisation theorists argue there is a decline in traditional Christianity, and sacralisation theorists argue that there is a growth in New Age Spirituality

Kendal Project

28,000 people in Kendal, Lake District, northwest England: Small enough to investigate thoroughly but large enough for a range of traditional religions and New Age Spiritualties. Focus of research was comparison between congregational domain and holistic milieu.

Congregational domain

Worship in conventional churches. Measured in Kendal Project via "bums on seats": 25 Christian churches and chapels headcounts on 26th November 2000, avoided problem of self-reporting where people tend to exaggerate their attendance rate.

Holistic milieu

Those who practise activities which they see as involving the whole person- as combining the mind, body and spirit. The inclusion of 'spirit' is critical; If an activity such as yoga or tai chi is not seen as spiritual, then that person is not included in the _________. In the Kendal project, a questionnaire was used to count those involved with New Age spiritualties and in-depth interviewing explored the attractions of New Age.

Kendal Project

Headcount of churches was exact same percentage as Britain as a whole. Attendance figures from 1950s onwards show a significant decline. By comparison, holistic milieu shows only strong growth. 95 practitioners of spiritual activities in 2000. 3 practitioners in Yellow Pages in 70s, 600 in 1999. However, only 55% considered these activities to be of spiritual significance.

Kendal Project

"the spiritual revolution clearly has not taken place in Kendal" However, if present trends continue, then the revolution will take place in 20 or 30 years.