AP Psych Unit 1

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how psychological traits and behaviours have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success. (Ex. Fight or Flight).

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms w/ traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on the advantageous traits.

Nature

The inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Nurture

The environmental influences and experiences that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors.

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors.

Family Studies

Analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit.

Heredity

The transmission of info from biological parents to offspring. It helps us determine what is from genes vs. environment.

Genetic Predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents.

Eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones.

Eugenics historical context

Originated in late 19th century with the goal of improving genetic qualities of human populations. Strongly associated with negative racial and social policies, including forced sterilizations and genocide.

Key figures in eugenics

Francis Galton (founder), Charles Davenport, and others who promoted eugenics theories and practices.

Significant Events in Eugenics

Early 20th Century: Adoption of eugenic policies in various countries, including the United States and Germany; Post World War II: Decline in eugenics practices following the Nazi atrocities.

Modern Relevance of Eugenics

Discusses the ethical dilemmas arising from new genetic technologies like CRISPR and gene editing which have the potential to revive eugenic-like practices under the guise of genetic enhancement.

Criticism and Controversy of Eugenics

Criticized for promoting discriminatory and unethical practices; modern science rejects eugenic principles due to their association with racism and pseudoscience.

The Nervous System

Our bodies communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves neurons and specialized cells.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord. It serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing info, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. It serves as a communication network of sensory info from the body to the CNS.

Automatic System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions. It operates automatically, without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for fight or flight response

parasympathetic nervous system

Responsible for slowing down and relaxing our body after a stress response.

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory info from the body to the CNS.

Neurons

Specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Glial Cells

the "support cells" of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons.

Reflex Arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes).

Motor Neurons

A nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands or organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary muscle movements.

Sensory Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory info from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs to the CNS.

Interneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other by sending electrical or chemical signals.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

All-or-Nothing Principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength.

Depolarization

Phase of the action potential where the neuron becomes less negative or slightly positive.

Refractory Period

A brief period after a neuron has fired during which it cannot generate another action potential.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive.

Reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. Attacks of myelin sheath exposing the axon.

myasthenia gravis (MG)

Chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles. Prevents muscle contraction.

Presynaptic Terminal

The end of the axon of the presynaptic neuron, where neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles.

Synaptic Cleft

The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic terminal from the postsynaptic neuron

Postsynaptic Membrane

The membrane on the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron, which contains neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released from the presynaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft. They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering changes in the postsynaptic neurons electrical potential.

Receptors

These are protein molecules embedded in the postsynaptic membrane that bind to neurotransmitters. When neurotransmitters bind to receptors, they cause ion channels to open or close, leading to changes in the postsynaptic neuron's electrical activity.

Ion channels

A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.

excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemical released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the post-synaptic neuron

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemical released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the post-synaptic neuron

Glutamate

Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, associated w/ learning and memory

Excess: Strokes, seizures, migraines

Deficiency: Seizures, insomnia

GABA

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety.

Excess: No sleep

Deficiency: Anxiety

Dopamine

Plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement.

Excess: Schizophrenia

Deficiency: Parkinsons

Serotonin

Plays a role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress.

Excess: Anxiety

Deficiency: Depression/aggression

Endorphins

Act as natural pain reliever.

Excess: Runners high

Deficiency: More pain and stress

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Excess: Sensitive to pain

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate physiological processes and behaviours.

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Melatonin

Regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms.

Oxytocin

Hormone that plays a key role in social bonding.

Adrenaline

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's stress response, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response.

Norepinethrine

Hormone and neurotransmitter associated w/ the body's "fight or flight" response, regulating arousal, attention, stress.

Excess: Anxiety

Deficiency: Depression

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter brain function, leading to changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognitive, or behaviour. (Stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opioids).

Agonists

chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

Reuptake Inhibitors

Drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Caffeine

A natural stimulant found in coffee, tea, and some sodas. It acts on the central nervous system, increasing alertness and reducing fatigue by blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine.

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol

Depressant, impairs judgement, coordination, cognitive function. Helps to relax through euphoria and intoxication.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter moods, thoughts, and sense perceptions including vision, hearing, smell, and touch

Marijuana

A psychoactive drug derived from the Cannabis plant. Contains THC which affects mood, perception, and cognition. Relaxes, distorts time, and increases sensory.

Opioids

psychoactive drugs that act on opioid receptors in the brain and body, producing pain relief, euphoria, and sedation.

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid drug derived from morphine. It produces intense euphoria, pain relief, and sedation by binding to opioid receptors in the brain.

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain involved in higher-level cognitive functions, like thinking, perceiving, and decision making.

Lobes of the Brain

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe

Association Areas

Parts of the brain that integrate different types of information from the senses and link it with stored memories.

Frontal lobes

Front of brain, involved in higher-level cognitive functioning, motor movement, and linguistic processing.

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements for the OPPOSITE side of the body.

Prefrontal cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

Executive Functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively.

Parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Somatosensory

In parietal lobe, referring to body sensation, particularly touch and pain sensation for the opp. side of the body.

Occipital Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles.

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Located in the upper brainstem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls movement, balance, and posture.

Limbic System

Controls emotions, memory, and motivation.

Reward Center

a dopamine-rich pathway (mostly limbic system)in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated

Thalumus

the structure of the brain that relays messages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex (all senses but smell).

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth, stress response, reproduction, and metabolic rate.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience