The French Revolution & Napoleon MEGA SET

Political/Military Background Causes to the 1789 French Revolution

• separated unequal voting system

• on the verge of bankruptcy from wars

• National Assembly broke away from Estates General with the Tennis Court Oath (to keep on meeting until a constitution was written) → Louis XVI ordered 18,000 troops to surround Paris

• people wanted a constitution

• Enlightenment's influence: Locke (life, liberty, property), Rousseau (people are born free and equal), Montesquieu (constitutional monarchy, checks and balances)

Economic Background Causes to the 1789 French Revolution

• military expenses (war): lots of debt → had to borrow money (loan) → paying lots of interest
• 50% of annual budget went to interest payments for loans
• 150,000/600,000 (one-fourth) of people in Paris were unemployed by July 1789
• bad harvests → less grain → bread prices went up
• 3rd Estate bore state taxes, church tithes, and nobles privileges → hit hard by rising bread prices
• nobles left → luxury market collapsed, foreign market shrank, unemployment in working class spread
• between 1730-1780: prices of goods went up by 65% while wages only went up 22%
• less jobs available
• only the necessary businesses survived
• took approximately 1 month to buy a loaf of bread → people were starving
• country was downright broke → Louis XVI had to call the Estates General

Social Background Causes to the 1789 French Revolution

• lack of representation in the Estates General → 3rd Estate was 98% of population, but the 1st (clergy) and 2nd (nobility) Estates would team up and vote against the 3rd
• lack of trust in the monarchy
• Great Fear caused people to be scared of the nation
• women had little rights
• Louis XVI fired his finance minister (Necker) who was trying to make things better for 3rd Estate → people were afraid they wouldn't be able to afford bread
• American Revolution: fought in it because they did not like the British, French officers (like Lafayette) came back inspired, intellectuals analyzed the Constitution of the US and states
• inflation: 1 month to buy a loaf of bread
• Marie Antoinette (wife of Louis XVI): from Austria (a foreigner), press hated her, "Madame Deficit," built an extravagant peasant village to 'play peasant' in
• Friend of the People: revolutionary newspaper
• peasants were mistreated through serfdom, forced to do road work, had to pay fees to get legal case in a lord's court, while nobles held exclusive hunting rights

What was the population of France at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

20 million

What percent of France's population made up the First Estate or clergy at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

0.5%

What percent of France's population made up the Second Estate or nobility at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

1.5%

What percent of France's population made up the Third Estate at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

98%

What percent of French land did the First Estate or clergy own at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

owned 10%

What percent of French land did the Second Estate or nobility own at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

owned 20%

What percent of French land did the Third Estate own at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

owned 60%

What percent of the Third Estate's land was owned by the Bourgeoisie at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

20%

What percent of the Third Estate's land was owned by the Peasantry at the time of the 1789 French Revolution?

40%

What percent of French land at the time of the 1789 French Revolution either belonged to the Crown, Common, and/or was waste land?

10%

What did Louis XVI do amidst the ominous atmosphere of famine and application of Enlightenment to politics in France?

He called upon the Estate General (first time since 1614) to stave the bankruptcy of the government in 1788.

Who was Necker?

• Louis XVI's finance minister
• called the "people's deputy"
• urged greater reforms and relief for people
• his tax reforms (general tax on all landed property + provincial assemblies to administer the tax) were rejected by the Council of Notables (aristocrats + clergy)

The Estates General wished to quickly move past the financial crisis and each Estate presented their cahiers in April of 1789; what were they?

Meaning 'notebook' in French, they reflected a list of deep grievances held by each Estate and the desire to create a constitutional monarchy.

What did the Parlements of Paris do that caused the disenfranchisement of the 3rd Estate and general anger?

They voted to uphold voting by "custom and tradition," meaning each Estate had one vote (the 1st and 2nd Estates would get to continue to team up against the 3rd Estate).

Who was Sieyès and what did he believe (in the beginning of the French Revolution)?

He belonged to the First Estate and wrote "What Is the Third Estate?" He argued that the nobility was tiny, overprivileged, and useless and France's true strength lied in the 3rd Estate. He emboldened the deputies and basically said nobles lived off of the 3rd Estate's hard work.

When the Third Estate left the Estates General, what did they create?

They assumed sovereignty and created the National Assembly.

How did King Louis XVI respond to the Third Estate breaking away and creating the National Assembly?

He blocked their meeting building and called the army to Paris.

As a result of King Louis preventative actions (blocking meeting building and calling army), what did the newly assembled National Assembly do?

They met at a "tennis court" and vowed (in the Tennis Court Oath) to "meet until a constitution was created."

What action prompted to French Revolution to begin politically?

King Louis XVI sided with the nobles BUT defections by the First and Second Estate forced him to recognize the National Assembly.

Tennis Court Oath Painting Observations

• people were middle class or above because of stockings
• there were no women on the floor, but above there are
• people are doing the Roman salute, meaning they are saying "yes we're with you"
• priest clad in white and two other men around him represent the Three Estates
• made of red, blue, and white hues
• middle class elites were writing the constitution but they had the commoners in mind when doing so
• an example of moderate actions in the French Revolution

What did the Bastille prison symbolize for the people of France?

It symbolized oppression because it housed political enemies.

When was the Storming of the Bastille?

July 14, 1789

What did Louis XVI's actions of firing Necker (financial advisor) and calling the army provoke in the peasants?

The peasants felt the need to protect themselves from the government.

How did the Storming of Bastille begin?

It began with a physical revolt/mob attack on the Bastille for guns and gunpowder (to protect themselves).

What were the causalties of the Storming of Bastille?

98 Parisians and soldiers were killed. But soldiers were also tortured via castration and beheaded.

What precedent did the Storming of the Bastille present?

A precedent for "popular violence," shown by the fact that the mob paraded the heads of their victims on sticks through the streets.

What was the overarching result of the Storming of the Bastille?

It was seen as a "blow to King's tyranny" and a "symbol of freedom" that unleashed the Revolution.

What was the indirect result of the Storming of the Bastille?

The National Assembly was saved by the Parisian mob (with nobles and clergy) BUT they said nothing about the attack. No one was held accountable for the extreme violence.

What was established to protect the people of France from the King?

The National Guard under Lafayette

What is the significance of the French flag that emerged during this turmoil?

It was tricolor (red/blue = Paris; white = Bourbon) and symbolized a break with the King.

How did the Great Fear (Summer of 1789) contribute to the growing violence?

Peasants began to rise up against their lords, ransacked their manor houses, burned feudal documents that had their obligations, and some occupied lands enclosed by landowners and forests. The peasants then began to fear noble and state retaliation for their actions.

What of significance to the French Revolution happened on the "Night of August 4" 1789?

The National Assembly abolished old feudal privileges (feudalism) of the nobles (banalites; peasant serfdom, hunting rights, fees for legal cases in lord's court, making peasants work on roads, corvée) to stop peasant riots.

What did the National Assembly promulgate on August 26, 1789?

𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘰𝘧 𝘙𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘔𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘊𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘻𝘦𝘯

What did 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘰𝘧 𝘙𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘔𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘊𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘻𝘦𝘯 include?

• Men are born and remain "free and equal" (Rousseau)
• Natural rights to "life, liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression" (Locke + more)
• Freedom of thought and religion (Voltaire)
• Due process, legal equality, and equal access to jobs (meritocracy)

When was 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘰𝘧 𝘙𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘔𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘊𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘻𝘦𝘯 only signed by Louis XVI?

After 7,000 "fish women" marched 12 miles from Paris to Versailles with sticks, sythes, and pikes to demand action from King to lower bread prices on October 5th. They invaded the royal apartments, killed some royal bodyguards, and searched for Marie Antoinette. The crowd demanded the King live in Paris and would only calm if he came with them.

What was significant about the March on Versailles (Oct. 1789)?

It was when the lowerclass reinforced the government.

After the 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘰𝘧 𝘙𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘔𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘊𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘻𝘦𝘯 was penned and signed, what was Olympe de Gouges inspired to pen?

𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘰𝘧 𝘙𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘞𝘰𝘮𝘦𝘯 (1791)

What rights did women gain under the National Assembly?

• education
• marriage as a civil contract (separate from church, secular)
• divorce
• could inherit property

As the National Assembly got more radical, what did the nobles do?

They emigrated out of France, causing the luxury market to collapse and foreign trade to lessen. Called emigres.

What are some Paris clubs and groups that formed to push change during the French Revolution?

• Jacobins: a political club whose members were well-educated radical republicans,
• Girondinsts: a moderate group that fought for control of the National Convention in 1793 against the Mountain, a sub-set of the Jacobin Club
• the Mountain: led by Robespierre, National Convention's radical faction, seized legislative power over the Girondists in 1793
• sans-culottes: laboring poor of Paris, wore trousers instead of knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle class, came to refer to the militant radicals of Paris, most radical, did NOT want a monarchy

When Necker lost favor with the people in 1790, what did the new royal advisor, Mirabeau, do?

Mirabeau pushed a stable constitution that wiped out the old regime but made moderate changes.

Political Reforms of the National Assembly's Constitution

• established a constitutional monarchy with 1791 Constitution
• historical provinces were replaced with 83 departments of equal size (rational, ended provincial power)
• excluded women from voting and holding political office
• King was the head of state (figurehead), BUT law-making power was in the hands of the National Assembly
• National Assembly was elected by males with a sufficient amount of property (half of male population)
• 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘰𝘧 𝘙𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘔𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘊𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘻𝘦𝘯 enforced
• National Assembly was the new unicameral legislative branch
• equality before the law for peasants
• political clubs allowed, people could express their opinion
• King could only delay-veto (send it back to National Assembly)
• only active citizens could vote because they paid to vote (only rich could vote)
• everyone is a citizen, active or passive
• abolished nobility
• abolished feudalism
• endorsed popular sovereignty, noting "source of all sovereignty is essentially in the nation"

Economic Reforms of the National Assembly's Constitution

• prohibited guilds (seen as vestige of past) with Le Chapelier law
• prohibited workers associations
• sold RCC property to make a new currency (assignats)
• internal custom fees
• equal taxations for citizens
• tithes abolished
• estates gone
• feudalism gone
• debt is not dissolvable because it is owed to the middle class

Social Reforms of the National Assembly's Constitution

• legalized divorce
• women could inherit property
• women could get financial support from fathers of illegitimate children
• Civil Constitution of Clergy: created a nationalized church, strips church of their land for assignats, priests + bishops were elected and had to take an oath of loyalty to the government, if refractory clergy did not take the oath they died! Extremely controversial outside of Paris
• religious freedom for Huguenots and Jews
• estates gone
• new culture of republicanism and French Civic Pride

When Mirabeau, the royal advisor, died in April 1791, who did the royal family of France grow increasingly afraid of?

The royal family of France grew increasingly afraid of radicals.

What was the "Flight to Varennes"?

On June 20, 1791 when the royal family of France was captured trying to escape to Austria (where Marie Antoinette was from), the enemy. Further solidified the King was a traitor.

What was the result of the Flight to Varennes?

• Louis XVI was forced to Paris to sign the National Assembly's Constitution
• Louis XVI was labeled a traitor and given treason charges

Historical Context to the Terror Phase of the French Revolution

• Active and Passive Citizens: active citizens could pay to vote, passive citizens couldn't so didn't vote
• September Massacres: sans-culottes urban mob that stormed the legislature + prisons where they killed jailed priests and aristocrats, targeted any oppositions of the Revolution
• after the September Massacres, the monarchy was abolished and a republic was created: main body being the National Convention
• royal family were essentially hostages of the National Convention
• Louis XVI was placed on trial for treason, BUT Austria + Prussia threatened to overthrow new government and restore Louis XVI's rule if necessary
• National Convention launches a "War on Tyranny" against all monarchies to protect its republic
• setback in War on Tyranny: creation of the 12 member Committee of Public Safety in Paris to regulate foreigners + provide safety by routing out "enemies of state" → superseded the National Convention
• National Convention + Robespierre ("the Incorruptible") pushes Revolution to radical phase with reforms → in 3 years the National Convention issued 11,250 decrees/laws

Government Reforms of the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety

• France is a republic with universal man suffrage (UMS) → no more active and passive citizens
• war declared on Great Britain, Dutch Republic, Austria, Prussia, and Spain
• executed royals after putting Louis XVI on trial for treason
• peasants drafted into armies
• ordered conscription of 300,000 men to fight against Austria + Prussia
• "enemies of nation" put on trial for political crimes (300,000 arrested, 40,000 killed) BUT there was bias in courts → kill whoever pisses Robespierre off/against the Revolution
• Constitution of 1793 suspended
• got the Rhineland and Austrian Netherlands
• put down counter-revolutionaries at Vendée: placed protesting peasants on a raft and blew them up
• enacted legislation forbidding clubs for women and excluding women from the army
• during Thermidorian Reaction, created Directory and new constitution
• reaffirmed the revolutionary principle of equality of all citizens before the law

Economic Reforms of the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety

• government told people to make arms, munitions, uniforms, boots, saddles, supplies for war
• government requisitioned raw materials and grain
• egalitarian policies
• more jobs because of army and manufacturing for war
• nationalizing small workshops
• central planned economy
• kept debt
• fear of socialism persisted: upper class feared losing their property
• revolution art, songs and secular festivals sponsored
• price control/price ceiling → government intervention
• unmarried men were drafted → ⤊ jobs, ⤋ unemployment
• only worked in Paris, everywhere else bread was expensive
• emigres: French nobles who fled fearing socialism
• Levee en Mass = draft: men, women, children can all work for the army
• equal taxes
• no feudalism
• abolished primogeniture (the practice under which property was inherited by the eldest son)
• reaffirmed the right to property acquired during the revolution and the end of the memorial obligations of the peasants, reaffirming that feudalism was indeed a thing of the past
• confiscated estates of emigre nobility, selling the land to peasants

Social-Religious Reforms of the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety

• secular holidays: Festival of Cult of the Supreme Being
• Jacobins prohibited women's clubs and political societies
• decimal system for weights → metric system, enforced it
• calendar based on 10-day weeks AND 9/22/1792 (first day of French Republic) as day/year one
• no more Sundays off because de-Christianization, people lost their rest day
• eliminating Catholic symbols + beliefs = de-Christianization
• common language + tradition enforced
• rationalized French daily life
• revolution art and songs sponsored by government
• patriotism + nationalism
• Pauline Leon said women should be allowed to fight, Robespierre said no! (scared because he saw what women could do during the March on Versailles and they did not have guns then, they would also ask to vote next)
• emancipated all slaves!
• stripped Notre Dome of Christianity and put on plays about freedom and constitutions, turned it into the "Temple of Reason"
• Vindication of Rights of Man (1790): written by Mary Wollstonecraft, a defense of the French Revolution
• Vindication of Rights of Women (1792): written by Mary Wollstonecraft, argues for equal education for women + women's rights as human beings

What percent of Nobles in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

25% ; 4%

What percent of Upper Middle-Class in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

28% ; 11%

What percent of Lower Middle-Class in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

14% ; 10%

What percent of Clergy in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

9% ; 6%

What percent of Working Class in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

19% ; 34%

What percent of Peasants in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

4% ; 34%

What percent of No Status Given people in Paris AND France died because of the Terror?

1% ; 1%

What are some observations about the data regarding the social status of the death because of the Terror in Paris and France?

• every class except working class and peasants were executed more in Paris than all of France
• In Paris, the upper middle-class was targeted the most
• Outside Paris, the working class and peasants were targeted the most

How did public opinion regarding the Revolution change during the Terror?

Public opinion when from Pro-Revolution to Anti-Revolution due to its extreme violence.

How was the impact of the Terror felt long after the Thermidorian Reaction?

• the execution of Robespierre put an end to the violence of the Terror
• After the radical National Convention and Terror, a 5 man Directory attempted to restore stability to the French Republic-representing respectable property-holding bourgeoisie
• But the Directory was corrupt and had to continually rely upon the army for stability meaning an ambitious Corsican was able to get a lot of power…

Where was Napoleon born?

In Corsica to an impoverished noble family

Who did Napoleon marry? And why did he divorce her?

Napoleon married Josephine, but divorced her to marry a Habsburg to get a claim to Austria.

Key events that lead to Napoleon's rise in power

• attended military school where he excelled, but was bullied for his birthplace
• became a lieutenant in French artillery in 1785
• converted to revolutionary cause + got control of French forces in Italy
• won major victories in Italy in 1796 and 1797, set up a republic in Italy
• ousted the Directory in 1799

What titles did Napoleon hold over his whole life?

• lieutenant
• general, commander
• First Consul
• Consul for life
• Emperor

What did Napoleon like?

• power
• nobles: brought the emigres back
• military
• winning
• meritocracy: he didn't come from much
• Frederick the Great: inspired by him
• Louis David: his court artist, assisted him in his make believe
• Roman Empire: also an inspiration of his

What did Napoleon dislike?

• Bourbon Dynasty
• losing
• his Egypt Campaign (1798-1799): was a disaster + they lost to Britain BUT stole lots of artifacts which were placed in Louvre museum, he told the STORY like it was a victory because they discovered lots
• Britain: waged the Continental System to hurt them
• Directory, National Convention, Terror
• reality so he creates his own

Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)

• ended War of First Coalition

• Napoleon beat Austrians in the Alps → got Belgium, left bank of Rhine, and Cisalpine Republic (Italy)

Coup d'etat Fructidor (1797)

• issue: the Royalists won the elections! Did not go the way the government wanted it to
• Directory needed help overturning the election results, so they turned to the Army (under Napoleon)
• result: government depends on Napoleon

Coup d'etat Brumaire (November 9, 1799)

• issue: Directory was failing! Napoleon was popular (after his expedition to Egypt!)
• Napoleon and conspirators ousted Directors, the next day soldiers disbanded the legislature at bayonet point
• result: Napoleon named First Consul of republic, a new constitution consolidated by national vote in December 1799

Government/Political Reforms under Napoleon

• help political suspects in state prisons
• created satellite kingdoms by placing relatives on throne → upheld the Continental System
• new Constitution created the Consulate (1799)
• declared himself Consul for life in 1802
• created a modern, central, hierarchal French state
• SECOND Constitution to create "The Empire" in 1804
• December 2, 1804: crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I of France with Pope in the room (but he did not place the crown on Napoleon's head → secular, distance from Church)
• network of ministers, prefects, and centrally appointed mayors consolidated his rule
• manipulated voting in elections
• established a meritocracy, brought it everywhere he went (international)
• redrew map of German lands to create the German Confederation of the Rhineland → weaken Austria and encourage secondary German states to side with France
• rigged plebiscites
• 1800 + 1802: granted amnesty to 100,000 emigres if they pledged loyalty to France and returned → many posts in centralized state filled
• unified the legal system, updating it from the days of the Old Regime, and even created a new unified civil code
• put interests of state over the individual
• reaffirmed revolutionary principle of equality of all citizen before the law
• established a highly centralized administration and protected most revolutionary rights through freedom of expression where "served to encourage anarchy" was restricted

Religious Reforms under Napoleon

• Concordant of 1801: Pope got French Catholics the freedom to practice, government could appoint bishops, pay the clergy, and have an influence over Church

Economic Reforms under Napoleon

• Bank of France: a national bank that served the interests of the state and financial oligarchy, was modern
• secured security of wealth + private property
• Continental System: blockade against British ships and good from French controlled ports → hurt people in the Empire too
• imposed drafts
• sold territory of Louisiana to USA

Social Reforms under Napoleon

• before Napoleon there were 60 newspapers/pamphlets, after Napoleon there were 4
• equality of all male citizens before the law
• Napoleonic Code made women dependent on husband/father, unable to make contracts or bank accounts under their name
• reduced free speech and freedom of press
• defended the land + status peasants won during French Revolution
• 1800 + 1802: granted amnesty to 100,000 emigres if swore loyalty to France and returned
• abolished feudal dues and serfdom → benefits middle class and peasants
• establishes a meritocracy where people get jobs through skill not birth
• put the interests of male over wife and children
• established lycées, secondary schools under control of the state

What year is considered the height of Napoleon's Empire?

1810

What are some lands in 1810 that were considered a part of Napoleon's (hereditary) French Empire?

• France
• Corsica
• Illyrian Provinces
• Part of Western Italy

What are some lands in 1810 that were considered under Napoleon Bonaparte's control?

• Spain
• German Confederation of the Rhine
• Grand Duchy of Warsaw
• Kingdom of Italy
• Kingdom of Naples

What are some lands in 1810 that were considered "uneasy allies" of Napoleon Bonaparte?

• Russian Empire
• Austrian Empire
• Kingdom of Norway
• Prussia
• Denmark

Who was considered the "Enemy Immortal" of Napoleon?

Great Britain

Significance of Austerlitz (1805)

• Napoleon defeats Austrians + Russians, ending War of the Third Coalition

• Austria forced to sign Treaty of Pressburg

Significance of Trafalgar (1805)

• a naval battle off coast of Spain where Napoleon lost to Admiral Nelson of Great Britain (had already lost to him in Egypt too)
• solidifies the fact that Great Britain would be THE naval power for 100 years → helps with their empire too
• Napoleon left obsessed with defeating Britain → Continental System

Berlin Decree (1806)

Napoleon's order establishing the Continental System, an economic blockade designed to hurt Britain by not allowing any British ships or goods to trade with area controlled by France. It was meant to weaken their military and economy, but rather helped Great Britain create their international empire (traded more with Latin + South America).

Significance of Friedland

• French victory that ended War of the Fourth Coalition
• led to the Treaty of Tilsit between France and Russia
• solidified Napoleon's control over continental Europe

Treaties of Tilsit (1807)

• after refusing to retreat from Friedland, Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I of Russia met in the middle of a river (both too egotistical to go to other side) to discuss this
• Alexander I agreed to join in a quasi alliance with Napoleon, accepted Napoleon's reorganization of the German states (German Confederation of the Rhine) + promised to enforce the Continental System (economic blockade) against Britain
• Prussia lost half its population

What were key French revolutionary values imposed (or adopted) across Europe because of Napoleon? ("The Revolution on Horseback)

• metric system
• abolishment of serfdom + feudal dues
• Continental System
• drafts
• heavy taxes
• 10-day week calendar
• secularization due of civil government (Spain especially unhappy with this because they were VERY Catholic)
• Napoleonic Code, Civil Code
• French language

France's impact on Haiti

• was a colony of France that reaped huge profit due to slave plantation agriculture
• people were inspired by the French Revolution + sought emancipation
• National Convention emancipated the slaves!
• Napoleon tries to bring back slavery
• original Code Noir: gave free people of color equal legal status to whites (could own property, live where wanted, pursue education or career wanted) → 1760s white resentment, so rights of free people of color rescinded → by French Revolution many discriminatory laws against free people of color
• 1685 Code Noir: legally regulated slavery, provided standards of human treatment BUT rarely enforced
• Toussaint L'Ouverture: an educated former slave and military general allied with Spain who led a slave rebellion in Haiti

Toussaint L'Ouverture

• learned to read + write French and some Latin → educated
• 1770s: emancipated + got his own coffee plantation → a former slave
• 1791: joined slave uprisings + took on war name "L'Ouverture" (the opening)
• early 1794: became a prominent figure in the rebel slaves allied with Spain (who controlled east part of Hispaniola, called Santo Domingo) who always supported rebel slaves, even controlled his own army
• 1794: defected to the French side (National Convention abolished slavery) + lead troops to victory against Spain
• 1800: had control over whole colony of Saint-Domingue after defeating Rigaud
• Napoleon sent his brother-in-law to re-establish slavery in Saint-Domingue → 1802: L'Ouverture arrested + deported to France with family where he died in prison in 1803
• his lieutenant, Dessalines, continued the fight + defeated French forces → Jan 1, 1804: formally declared independence of Saint-Domingue and the creation of Haiti

Napoleon's Impact on "Germany" (Austria, Prussia, more)

• Austria was forced to sign the Pressburg Treaty (1805) which changed Germany forever
• reorganized the German states into the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite state, and declared himself its protector
• France got Venice + Trieste
• Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved (via letter) → Francis II became Francis I (first Austrian Emperor)
• forced Prussia to join the Continental System
• Prussia lost 1/2 its population in Treaty of Tilsit

Why was Napoleon's Empire ("judicial imperial system") fated to fail?

It was based on forced change (Continental System, Civil Code), sanctions (conscription, taxes), and the humiliation of other countries (Austria who lost Holy Roman Empire, Prussia who lost their military glory).

How did the two-front war Napoleon faced start?

When Tsar Alexander I left the Continental System by allowing British goods into Russia in December of 1810. The war exhausted Napoleon's international Grand Empire.

Peninsular War

• Napoleon deposed the King of Spain + placed his brother Joseph on the throne
• Spain was very Catholic so they didn't like the secular government
• rebels retaliated with guerilla warfare
• Great Britain helped Spanish and Portuguese rebels against France
• Spanish nationalism ↑

Russian Campaign

• Alexander I left the Continental System (promised to join in Treaty of Tilsit) in December of 1810 by opening Russian ports to British goods
• 1812: Napoleon led 600,000 men into Russia + decided to push into Moscow (bad idea)
• Alexander I ordered his people to burn part of Moscow (scorched earth policy, leave no supplies, food, anything that could help the enemy) + evacuate
• Russian winter chipped away at Napoleon's army: horses died, people died, there was no food
• result (epic disaster for Napoleon): 370,000 men died and 200,000 men captured

Upon hearing of Moscow burning, what did European liberals who once praised Napoleon and his reforms do?

The responded with nationalistic joy.

Wars of Liberation

• Wellington of Great Britain pushed through the Iberian Peninsula with the help of Portugal and Spain
• Russia invaded West Europe
• German states came together to join the anti-French wars too

Battle of Nations

• October 1813 at Leipzig
• Napoleon was defeated by Grand Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia, Great Britain) even with his newly conscripted army

Metternich's (Austrian) "Frankfurt Proposals"

• advocated to keep Napoleon in power
• were rejected

After his defeat at the Battle of Nations, what did Napoleon do?

He abdicated and was exiled to Elba as the island's emperor (immediately set up a constitution).