AP Psychology Unit 0: Psychological Science Practices - Research Methods and Data Interpretation

Vocabulary flashcards reviewing core concepts, definitions, and methods covered in AP Psychology Unit 0.

Critical thinking

A thinking process that examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight bias

The common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were (also known as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon).

Peer reviewers

Experts who evaluate a study's theory, originality, and accuracy before it is published.

Theory

An explanation of behavior or events that offers ideas to organize observations and must be put to the test using research.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that can be implied by a theory.

Falsifiable

 The feature of a hypothesis or theory showing the possibility that it can be disproven.

Operational definition

Carefully worded statements of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to see if the basic finding can be recreated.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of one or a few people, from which findings cannot be generalized.

Naturalistic observation

Observations conducted in a natural setting without controlling or manipulating the situation.

Survey

A research technique for assessing self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group.

Wording effects

The effects that the phrasing or wording of a question has on how someone responds.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a way that is thought to please the researcher.

Self-report bias

A bias that occurs when people do not accurately report or remember their own behaviors.

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling procedure that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Convenience sampling

Collecting research data from a group that is readily available.

Representative sample

A small subset of a larger population that accurately represents the characteristics of the population.

Random sample

A sample of participants that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance to be included in the study.

Population

All the individuals in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables.

Positive correlation

A relationship where two sets of scores tend to rise or fall together.

Negative correlation

A relationship where two sets of scores are inversely related, meaning one set rises while the other falls.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a correlation where none exists, or perceiving that a relationship is stronger than it actually is.

Regression toward the mean

A statistical phenomenon where extreme or unusual scores/events tend to fall back toward their average.

Experiment

A research method in which one or more independent variables are manipulated to observe their effect on a dependent variable, attempting to establish a cause and effect connection.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment exposed to the treatment or manipulation (independent variable).

Control group

The group in an experiment not exposed to the treatment or manipulation, serving as a baseline comparison.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group, used to reduce experimenter bias.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Independent variable

The factor that is manipulated in an experiment; the possible cause.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

Experimenter bias

Bias caused when researchers unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured in an experiment; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Longitudinal study

A research design that follows and retests the same people over a period of time.

Cross-sectional study

A research design that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Quantitative research

A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

Qualitative research

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.

Confederates

Individuals who pretend to be regular participants in a research study.

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study to its participants, including any temporary deception used.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Committees comprising at least $5$ people that enforce ethical standards in university and research organizations.

Table 0.5-1: Comparing Research Methods

A summary chart detailing the basic purpose, method of conducting, manipulated variables, and weaknesses across non-experimental (case studies, observations, surveys, correlational studies) and experimental research methods.

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution, representing the 50th percentile.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores that fall below a given score.

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lacks symmetry around their average value.

Range

The measure of variation computed as the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that help determine how reliable and statistically significant the differences within data are.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for combining and analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Null hypothesis

A statement predicting that there is no relationship between two variables being studied.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, typically indicated by a p-value of $p < 0.05$.

Effect size

A statistical measure showing the strength or meaningfulness of the relationship between two variables.