Comparitive Politics Unit 10: Presidential, Parliamentary, and Semi-Presidential Systems

Majoritarian institutions

• Institutions that concentrate power in hands of the majority

• Minority has little influence in policy-making process

Legislative-Executive Relations: Parliamentary

Election System: SMDP & SNTV

Government Type: Single-party majority

Party System: Two Party

Subnational Unit Relations: Unitary

• Representation of Majority Preferences: These institutions ensure that the majority’s voice carries the most weight in decisions. For example, single-member district voting systems amplify the preferences of the majority in a district, allowing clear winners in elections.

• Efficient Decision-Making: Majoritarian systems often facilitate faster decision-making since they don’t require extensive consensus-building like proportional systems.

• Policy Clarity: Policies tend to be clearer and more decisive because they reflect the majority’s choice rather than a compromise among various groups.

• Stability: Majoritarian institutions often lead to single-party rule in legislatures, which can create political stability and cohesive governance.

Consensus Institutions

Institutions that

• Disperse power among actors/interests

• Elections produce legislatures that reflect society as a whole

• Everyone should be able to influence policy-making in proportion to their electoral size

Legislative-Executive Relations: Presidential

Election System: PR

Government Type: Coalition/minority

Party System: Multi Party

Subnational Unit Relations: Federalism

• Inclusivity: These institutions aim to ensure that all groups, including minorities and smaller political parties, have a voice in decision-making. For example, proportional representation allows smaller parties to gain seats in a legislature.

• Power Sharing: Consensus systems often distribute power more broadly, reducing the risk of dominance by a single group or party. Coalition governments are a good example, where multiple parties share executive power.

• Conflict Reduction: By promoting cooperation and compromise, consensus institutions can help mitigate societal divisions and reduce political polarization.

• Legitimacy: Decisions made through consensus are often viewed as more legitimate because they involve input from a wider range of stakeholders.

• Policy Continuity: Policies are more likely to reflect long-term, broad-based agreements, reducing drastic swings in governance when leadership changes.

Executive-legislative relations

The relationship between the executive and the legislative branch

Presidential Countries fall under consensus

Parliamentary Countries are Majoritarian

Presidential System

• Government that doesn’t depend on legislative majority to survive

• Executive government (President + cabinet) does not depend on a legislative majority

• Separation of powers/ divided government

• President & legislators popularly elected

• Fixed terms

  • Legislature cannot remove president (except impeachment rare) without a cause

  • Parliamentary can remove whenever

• President picks their cabinet

• President has some law-making power

• President is head of Government and state

• Government is Consensus Institution

Ex: United States

Parliamentary System

• Executive government ( Prime Minister (PM) + Cabinet) depends on a legislative majority

• No Fixed Terms

• PM can call early elections to try to gain seats in legislature

• Vote of No Confidence is present to remove Prime Minster

• Coalition Government

  • Hard for one party to get majority of votes

• Cabinet formed by majority party or coalition negotiations

• Head of State and Head of Government are different people

Example: UK, Malaysia, South Africa

Coalition Government

Part of the Government Formation process in Parliamentary Systems, coalition governments exist when more than one party is represented in the cabinet

A coalition government is significant because it promotes inclusivity and power-sharing by bringing together multiple political parties to govern collectively, ensuring broader representation of diverse interests. It fosters compromise and consensus, which can reduce polarization and create more balanced policies. However, it can also face challenges like slower decision-making or instability if disagreements arise among coalition partners.

Gamson’s Law/Rule

• Cabinet seats go to members of coalition parties in proportion to the number of legislative seats they bring to the coalition

highlights how political negotiations are influenced by the relative strength of coalition partners, ensuring a fair and logical allocation of influence. This principle promotes stability by incentivizing cooperation among parties, as smaller parties understand their level of influence will align with their legislative contributions, while larger parties can secure a greater share of cabinet authority

Investiture Vote

Formal Vote in parliament to determine support for a government before they can take office.

• Part of the Government Formation process for parliamentary democracies

lies in their role as a mechanism for ensuring democratic legitimacy and parliamentary control over the executive. They can impact government formation by potentially constraining the types of governments that emerge, particularly affecting the likelihood of minority governments

Shadow Cabinet

When members of an opposition party are responsible for understanding different cabinet portfolios. They scrutinize and oppose the policies and decisions of the government

By actively monitoring the government's actions and proposing alternative policies, the shadow cabinet strengthens democratic processes and keeps the ruling party in check. Additionally, it prepares opposition leaders to assume government roles if they win the next election, ensuring a smoother transition of power. Shadow cabinets also offer voters a clear picture of the opposition’s policy priorities and leadership capabilities.

Formateur

• Part of the Government Formation process for parliamentary democracies

  • a person designated to form the government

Their role involves negotiating with other parties to create a coalition agreement that secures majority support in the legislature.

Informateur

• Part of the Government Formation process for parliamentary democracies

  • a person who examines politically feasable coalitions and nominates a formateur

Vote of No Condidence

parliamentary procedure used to determine whether the legislature continues to support the current government or its leader, such as the prime minister. If the vote passes, it signals that the government no longer has the confidence of the majority, often resulting in the resignation of the government, the dissolution of parliament, or new elections

The significance of a vote of no confidence lies in its ability to ensure democratic accountability and responsiveness. It empowers legislatures to remove ineffective, unpopular, or corrupt governments, preventing unchecked executive power.

Head of State/Government

President is head of State and Government in Presidential Systems

Head of government and state are different in Parliamentary with PM being head of government

Minimal winning coalition

• a coalition of political parties formed in a parliamentary system where the combined seats of the parties are just enough to secure a legislative majority (e.g., 51% of the seats).

• excludes any unnecessary parties to minimize the division of power and resources, such as cabinet positions or policy concessions. The goal is efficiency: only the smallest number of parties needed to maintain a majority are included.

• less stable is disagreements arise

Vote of confidence

• parliamentary procedure initiated by the government to confirm that it has the support of the majority in the legislature. Typically, the prime minister or head of government calls for this vote to demonstrate their legitimacy, rally support for a key policy, or counter political challenges

• If the vote passes, the government retains power; if it fails, the government may resign, or new elections could be triggered.

Grand Coalition

Part of the Government Formation in Parliamentary Systems

• governing coalition that includes the largest political parties, often from across the ideological spectrum, to create a broad-based majority

• Opposite of MWC

• The significance of a grand coalition lies in its ability to foster political stability and unity, particularly in deeply divided societies or during emergencies. It enables collaboration between diverse groups, reducing polarization and ensuring that major decisions have broad support.

Minority Government

A Government in which the government parties don’t jointly command a majority of legislative seats.

Westminster Model

a form of parliamentary democracy originating in the United Kingdom, characterized by a strong executive branch drawn from the legislature, a first-past-the-post electoral system, and the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. In this model, the government is led by the prime minister, who is the leader of the majority party in the legislature, and the executive is accountable to parliament

Cohabitation

Part of Semi Presidential Systems of Government

• Occurs when Division of labor between PM and President when they are from different parties, the president doesn’t control majority of legislature or cabinet

• the President often retains authority over foreign and defense policy, while the Prime Minister manages domestic affairs and legislative agendas

Semi-presidential system

• Members of parliament and president elected

• The PM is selected by parliament or by the President

• 'Dual Executive'

• Prime

• Example: Fifth French Republic (1958-Present)

  • President can make laws

  • Can dissolve the French National assembly and call elections

  • Commander-in-chief of military

  • President names the PM who is confirmed by the legislature

By dividing responsibilities between two leaders, these systems can prevent excessive concentration of power in one branch. They also allow for flexibility in governance, particularly during periods of political crisis or divided government

Government vs Opposition in Parliamentary Systems

• Government

  • consists of the ruling party or coalition that holds the majority of seats in the legislature. It is responsible for creating and implementing policies, managing the executive branch, and representing the state both domestically and internationally.

• Opposition

  • comprises political parties or groups that do not hold power. Their role is to critique government policies, propose alternatives, and hold the government accountable through debates, votes, and public engagement.

Policy-Seeking Politician

• Politicians primarily motivated by the desire to implement specific policies or advance a particular ideological agenda rather than seeking power or office for its own sake. These politicians focus on shaping legislation, promoting reforms, or influencing public discourse to align with their policy goals

• Will try to secure smallest MWC and follow Gamson’s Law

Office-Seeking Politician

• Politicians interested in the intrinsic benefits of the office and securing ministerial positions

Clarity of responsibility

The ability of voters to identify who is responsible for policy outcomes.

• Stronger in Parliamentary and Weaker in presidential

• Weaker in Federal countries and Stronger in Unitary

The more concentrated power is, the easier it is for voters to identify who to vote for/ vote out

Accountability

Important feature of democracies where voters can reward politicians (by re-electing them) or punish politicians (by voting them out) based on their performance while in office.

Relates to clarity of responsibility

• Stronger in Parliamentary and Weaker in presidential

• Weaker in Federal countries and Stronger in Unitary

The more concentrated power is, the easier it is for voters to identify who to vote for/ vote out

Perils of Presidentialism

Strong President

• Power is divided between legislative and exec

• But easier for president to concentrate power

• More likely to get "rogue presidents"

• In Parliamentary Systems, PMs are 'first among equals

 

Dual Legitimacy

• Leg and Exec have independent sources of legitimacy

• No constitutional mechanism for resolving gridlock

• Low clarity of responsibility

• Slow policy-making

The significance of these perils lies in their implications for democratic stability and governance. Presidentialism's winner-takes-all nature can exacerbate polarization, as power is concentrated in a single individual rather than shared among coalition partners.