Chapter 8 Intro To Pysch

development

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline.

nature

An individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes.

nurture

An individual’s environmental and social experiences.

resilience

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times.

cognitive development

How thought, intelligence, and language processes chnage as people mature.

assimilation

An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.

accommodation

An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information.

object permanence

Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.

conservation

The understanding that an object’s amount or volume stays the same even when its shape or appearance changes. Example: Knowing that water poured into a taller glass is still the same amount as before.

egocentrism

A child’s inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view.

executive function

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving.

socioemotional development

The process of learning how to interact with others and manage emotions throughout life.

secure attachment

The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 18 months, infants learn to trust caregivers to meet their needs; if not, they develop fear and mistrust.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Between 18 months and 3 years, children start making choices and gaining independence; failure or harsh criticism can lead to shame and doubt.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

From 3 to 5 years old, children begin to take initiative in play and decision-making; if discouraged, they may feel guilty about their efforts.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Between 6 and 12 years, children work to develop skills and feel capable; if they struggle or are compared negatively to others, they may feel inferior.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

During 12 to 18 years, teens explore who they are and what they believe in; failure to form a clear identity can lead to confusion about their role in life.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

From 18 to 40 years, young adults seek close relationships and emotional connection; failure to form these bonds may result in loneliness or isolation.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Between 40 and 65 years, adults strive to contribute to society and support future generations; if not, they may feel unproductive or stuck.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

From 65 years and older, people reflect on their life; if they feel proud, they gain integrity, but if they feel regret, they may experience despair.

four basic parenting styles

Authoritarian, Authoritative, Neglectful, Permissive

Authoritarian parenting

A restrictive, punitive parenting style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent’s directions and to value hard work and effort.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior.

Neglectful parenting

A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behavior.

gender

The social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither.

sexual orientation

The direction of an individual’s erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male–female relations to exclusive same-gender relations.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

preconventional level, conventional level, and

postconventional level.

preconventional level

From early childhood to about age 9 or 10, morality is based on avoiding punishment and getting rewards, with right and wrong judged by how it affects the self.

conventional level

Starting around age 10 and continuing through adolescence and adulthood, morality is based on following rules, gaining approval, and maintaining social order.

postconventional level

Usually developing in late adolescence or adulthood (though not everyone reaches it), morality is based on personal ethics, human rights, and universal principles—even if it means going against laws or norms.