Chapter 1 & 3 Lecture Notes Flashcards

Flashcards based on anatomy and physiology lecture notes.

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure of the body and its parts.

What are the main topics included in anatomy?

Gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy (histology), developmental anatomy, and radiographic anatomy.

What is physiology?

The study of the function of the body and how it works.

What is the basic unit of life?

The cell.

What are the levels of organization in the body?

Atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems, organism.

What are organelles?

Tiny organ-like structures within cells that perform specific functions and are essential for cell survival.

What is a cell?

The smallest unit in the body that possesses characteristics of life.

How many cells does the human body have?

Approximately 40 trillion.

What are the main parts of a cell?

Membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.

What is a tissue?

A group of similar cells that have developed from the same part of the embryo and perform a specific function.

What are the four main types of tissue?

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

What are organs made of?

Different kinds of tissues that together can perform different functions in the body.

What are systems in the body?

Organs that work together to perform more complex functions in the body.

What does the integumentary system consist of and what are its functions?

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands, forming the external body covering, protecting deep tissues, and synthesizing vitamin D.

What does the nervous system consist of and what are its functions?

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves, acting as the fast-acting control system of the body and responding to stimuli.

What does the skeletal system consist of and what are its functions?

Bones, cartilage, and ligaments, protecting and supporting body organs, providing a framework for muscles, and storing minerals.

What does the muscular system consist of and what are its functions?

Muscles and tendons, allowing manipulation of the environment, locomotion, maintaining posture, and producing heat.

What does the endocrine system consist of and what are its functions?

Glands that secrete hormones, promoting growth and development and maintaining homeostasis.

What does the cardiovascular system consist of and what are its functions?

Heart, blood vessels, and blood, pumping and transporting blood throughout the body for transport of gases, nutrients, and wastes.

What does the lymphatic system consist of and what are its functions?

Red bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels, picking up leaked fluid, disposing of debris, and housing white blood cells involved in immunity.

What does the respiratory system consist of and what are its functions?

Nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, pharynx, and lungs, keeping blood supplied with oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.

What does the digestive system consist of and what are its functions?

Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver, breaking down food and eliminating indigestible food.

What does the urinary system consist of and what are its functions?

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, eliminating nitrogenous wastes and regulating water, electrolyte, and pH balance.

What does the reproductive system consist of and what are its functions?

Prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and duct system (males) and mammary glands, ovaries, vagina, uterus, and uterine tubes (females), for the production of offspring.

What is homeostasis?

Maintaining a stable internal environment.

What are the three parts of a control system that helps maintain homeostasis?

Receptor, control center, and effector.

What are the two main compartments of body fluids?

Extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF).

What are the two components of extracellular fluid (ECF)?

Plasma and interstitial fluid.

What are the key characteristics of intracellular fluid (ICF) composition?

High potassium (K+), low sodium (Na+), and very low calcium (Ca++).

Which organ is of major importance in controlling electrolytes within the extracellular fluid?

The kidneys.

What does disruption of homeostasis lead to?

Leads to an unstable internal environment, disease, and even death.

What are the elements of feedback systems?

Receptor, afferent pathway, control center, effector, and efferent pathway.

What are the two main types of feedback mechanisms?

Negative and positive feedback.

What does negative feedback do?

Reverses the action of the original stimulus, returning the variable to its ideal normal value.

What does positive feedback do?

Increases the action of the original stimulus, moving the variable further away from its previous value.

Which two major organ systems constantly work to monitor deviations from homeostasis?

Nervous and endocrine systems.

What is the fluid link between the external and internal environment?

Plasma.

What do afferent neurons do?

Take sensory information and direct it towards the central nervous system.

What do efferent neurons do?

Take messages from the CNS and deliver them to muscles and glands.

What are cells?

Building blocks of all plants and animals, produced by the division of pre-existing cells, and the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions.

How can cells be classified?

Somatic cells (46 chromosomes) and sex cells (23 chromosomes).

What are the main components of a cell?

Cell membrane, cytoplasm, and cytoskeleton.

What is the cell membrane?

A barrier that separates the internal components of a cell from the external environment and regulates the passage of substances.

What is the backbone of the cell membrane made of?

Lipid bilayer, primarily phospholipids, with hydrophobic interactions.

What are the two distinct populations of proteins in the cell membrane?

Integral and peripheral.

What are the functions of membrane proteins?

Receptors, enzymes, transporters, cell identification, and cell adhesion.

What is the model called that describes the dynamic nature of the cell membrane?

Fluid mosaic model.

What is the fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate area of the cell membrane called?

The glycocalyx.

What are the different types of membrane junctions?

Tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

What are the two main types of membrane transport?

Passive and active processes.

What are the types of passive diffusion?

Simple and facilitated diffusion.

What is diffusion?

Due to the random thermal motion of molecules, moving from high to low concentration.

What factors influence diffusion?

Temperature, molecular weight, concentration gradient, area of diffusion, viscosity, electrical field, and distance.

What is osmosis?

The movement of a solvent (usually water) across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

What are the two kinds of passive diffusion?

Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

What is simple diffusion?

Movement of substances that can freely pass through the membranes, such as H2O, gases, hydrophobic molecules, and fat-soluble vitamins.

What is facilitated diffusion?

Movement of hydrophilic molecules, such as small polar and charged molecules (ions), from one side of the membrane to the other by means of transmembrane transporter proteins.

What are the two basic forms of transmembrane transporters?

Channel proteins and carrier proteins.

What are the two forms of channel proteins?

Leakage channels and gated channels.

What are the three forms of gated channels?

Chemically-gated, voltage-gated, and mechanically-gated.

What two forces act during channel diffusion?

Diffusion force and electrical force.

What are the types of Carrier proteins

Uniporter, symporter (co-transporter), and antiporter (counter-transporter).

What is active transport?

Integral proteins and energy are needed to overcome the obstacles of the moving molecules uphill.

What are the types of active transport?

Primary active transport and secondary active transport.

What is primary active transport?

Uses ATP directly as a driving force to pump ions and small molecules across the membrane.

Give an example of primary active transport

The Na+/K+ pump

What is secondary active transport?

USES ATP indirectly to move another molecule against a concentration gradient

What kind of particles does vesicular transport move?

Large particles across the plasma membrane via membrane vesicles.

What are the two kinds of vesicular transport?

Exocytosis and endocytosis.

What is exocytosis?

Moves bulk material out of the cell.

What is endocytosis?

Moves bulk material into the cell.

What are the three different types of endocytosis?

Pinocytosis, Phagocytosis, receptor-mediated

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure of the body and its parts.

What is physiology?

The study of the function of the body and how it works.

What are the levels of organization in the body?

The levels include atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems, and organism.

How many organ systems are there, which ones are they, and what are their main functions?

There are 11 organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive. Each performs specific functions vital for the body's survival.

What is homeostasis?

Maintaining a stable internal environment.

What is homeostasis, and how does it relate to body fluids?

Homeostasis is maintained by regulating body fluids. Disruptions can lead to unstable internal conditions, disease, or even death.

What are the two main body fluid compartments?

The two main compartments are extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF).

What are the components of extracellular fluid (ECF)?

ECF consists of plasma and interstitial fluid.

What are the key characteristics of intracellular fluid (ICF) composition regarding electrolytes?

ICF has high potassium (K+), low sodium (Na+), and very low calcium (Ca++).

How do feedback mechanisms work?

A receptor detects changes, an afferent pathway sends information to the control center, which then sends signals via the efferent pathway to an effector to restore balance.

What do afferent and efferent mean in the context of neurons?

Afferent neurons carry sensory information to the central nervous system (CNS), while efferent neurons carry messages from the CNS to muscles and glands.

What is the difference between positive and negative feedback mechanisms?

Negative feedback reverses the original stimulus to maintain stability, while positive feedback amplifies the original stimulus, moving the variable further from its initial value.

Explain the composition of a cell membrane.

The cell membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer (primarily phospholipids), proteins (integral & peripheral), and carbohydrates (glycocalyx).

What are the characteristics and functions of the elements in a cell membrane, and what are typical cell junctions?

Membrane proteins serve as receptors, enzymes, transporters, cell identification markers, and cell adhesion molecules. Composition can vary from cell to cell, tissue to tissue. Cell junctions include tight junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions.

What is the major difference between passive and active transport?

Passive transport doesn't require energy and moves substances down their concentration gradient, while active transport requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient.

What is the behavior of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances regarding membrane crossing?

Hydrophilic substances have difficulty crossing membranes passively, often requiring channels or carriers, while hydrophobic substances can freely pass through the lipid bilayer.

Define diffusion.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration due to random thermal motion.

What factors influence diffusion?

Factors influencing diffusion include temperature, molecular weight, concentration gradient, area of diffusion, viscosity, electrical field, and distance.

What are Fick's and Einstein's equations related to diffusion, and how does Fick's equation change for membrane passage?

Einstein's equation x_{rms} = ilda{}\sqrt{2Dt}, Fick's J = -D(dC/dx). Fick's equation changes when dealing with passage through membrane by J=-P(C1-C2), where P is permeability.

What is Osmosis?

Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. It requires a semipermeable membrane and a concentration gradient.

What are the two forms of passive transport through a membrane, and how do they differ?

Simple diffusion allows substances to pass freely through membranes, while facilitated diffusion requires transmembrane transporter proteins.

What is the main difference between a channel and a carrier (transporter)?

Channels are pores that allow specific molecules to pass through, while carriers bind to molecules and undergo conformational changes to transport them.

What are integral and peripheral proteins?

Integral proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer, while peripheral proteins are attached to the surface.

What is the main difference between leakage and gated channels?

Leakage channels are always open, while gated channels open in response to specific signals.

What is the main stimuli for the three forms of gated channels?

Chemically-gated open in response to chemical signals, voltage-gated open in response to changes in membrane potential, and mechanically-gated open in response to physical deformation.

What are the two forces acting during channel diffusion?

Diffusion force is due to the concentration gradient, while electrical force is due to the membrane potential.

How do the types of carrier proteins differ?

Uniporters carry one molecule, symporters carry two molecules in the same direction, and antiporters carry two molecules in opposite directions.

What is the key difference between primary and secondary active transport?

Primary active transport uses ATP directly, while secondary active transport uses energy stored in ionic gradients created by primary active transport.