PSYC 201 Exam 1

Encoding

information entering the brain; requires conscious attention

Storage

maintaining information in the brain; three divisions (two temporary, one more permanent)

Retrieval

getting information out of the brain; some strategies are more effective than others

Levels-of-processing theory

Craik and Tulving; deeper levels of processing create longer-lasting memory codes 

Elaboration

Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding; building connections

Visual imagery

Creating images to represent words to be remembered

Dual-coding theory

Paivio; memory improves when semantic and visual codes are connected, as either can lead to recall

Motivation to remember

information deemed as important will have more effort placed towards encoding

Sensory memory

original sense memory of information; afterimage

Short-term memory

temporary, fractional storage of information 

Rehearsal

verbal or mental repetition of information to increase its storage period

Chunk

group of familiar stimuli able to be stored as a singular unit

Working memory

Baddeley; system of temporary storage and manipulation of information (another word for short-term memory)

Phonological loop

component of working memory; recitation to remember short bits of language

Visuospatial sketchpad

component of working memory; temporary memory of visual images

Central executive system

component of working memory; permits deployment, focus, and division of attention

Episodic buffer

component of working memory; temporary, limited capacity storage that acts as an in-between of short- and long-term memory

Working memory capacity (WCM)

one’s ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention

Long-term memory

unlimited capacity storage able to hold information over long periods of time

Flashbulb memory

extremely vivid and detailed memories of momentous events (usually negative)

Clustering

tendency to remember similar items in groups

Conceptual hierarchy

multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

Schema

organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event based upon previous experience

Semantics networks

nodes representing concepts, joined by pathways which link concepts

Spreading activation

Collins and Loftus; the mind immediately moves towards related items to new knowledge to build connection and familiarity

Tip-of-tongue phenomenon

temporary inability to remember something; information feels just out of reach

Retrieval cues

stimuli which help gain access to memories (ex. hints, related information, or partial recollections)

Context clues

an individual placing themselves back in a time/place to remember events

Misinformation effect

when a person’s recall of an event is altered by misleading post-event information

Source monitoring

process of making inferences about the origins of memories

Source monitoring error

misremembering the origin of information (seeing something that was only told, remembering the wrong person giving information, etc.)

Forgetting

loss of information in memory

Nonsense syllables

Ebbinghaus; consonant-vowel consonant arrangements with no word correspondences; used for his forgetting curve model 

Forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus; graph of retention and forgetting over time

Retention

proportion of material retained/remembered

Retention intervals

length of time between information being remembered and forgotten

Recall measure

retention; requires people to reproduce information without aid of cues

Recognition measure

retention; requires people to select previously learned information from an array of options

Relearning measure

retention; requires people to memorize information a second time to determine how much time/effort it takes to retain it

Pseudoforgetting

attributed to lack of attention paid while learning

Decay theory

proposes that forgetting is caused by memory traces fading with time; suggests forgetting is more physiological and due to the process of time

Interference theory

proposes that people forget information due to competition from other material

Retroactive interference

occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information

Proactive interference

occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information

Retrieval failure

Difficulty in accessing information despite it still being present

Encoding specificity principle

the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

Motivated forgetting/repression

unpleasant memories are often buried in the unconscious

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memories of events prior to trauma

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memories of events occurring after trauma

Medial temporal lobe memory system

memory complex, including the entire hippocampal region and adjacent areas

Consolidation

the hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of new, unstable memories into stable, durable memory codes stored in the long-term memory

Reconsolidation

restabilization of memories after reactivation; can weaken, strengthen, or update them

Localized neural circuits

unique, reusable pathways on which signals flow

Alterations in synaptic transmission

reflex learning produces changes in the strength of specific synaptic connections by enhancing availability and release of neurotransmitters at these synapses; may be important for construction of more complex memories

Neurogenesis

formation of new neurons; may contribute to construction of neural circuits important to memory

Dentate gryus

area where new brain cells are formed; in the hippocampus

Declarative memory system

handles factual information; requires conscious attention for retrieval

Nondeclarative memory system

houses memory for actions, skills, responses, emotions, etc.; more automatic retrieval (effort can actually decrease performance)

Episodic memory system

chronological or temporarily dated recollections of personal experiences; remembering

Semantic memory system

general knowledge not tied to the time when the information was learned; knowing

Retrospective memory

remembering events from the past or previously learned information

Prospective memory

remembering to perform actions in the future

Metacognition

ability to ‘think about thinking’

Person-object-action system

associating cards with a celebrity, completing a task, with an object; allows for memorization of three cards as one ‘unit’

Evolutionary psychology

study of how evolution shapes psychological traits

Method of Loci

putting a list of items/tasks on a ‘visual walk’

Major system

Wineklmann; numbers associated with sounds to then create words

Structuralism

Titchner; psychology is analyzed in terms of its components, and then how those elements relate; focus on the senses; use of introspection

Introspection

systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience 

Functionalism

psychology investigates the function/purpose of consciousness, as opposed to the structure; condensing down to elements ignores the flow of consciousness

Unconscious

thoughts, memories, and desires stored below the surface of conscious awareness

Psychoanalytic theory

Freud; attempt to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders through focus on unconscious determinants of behavior (more focus on sexual and aggressive drives)

Behaviorism

Alters; psychology should study solely observable behaviors; abandonment of study of the consciousness

Humanism

critique against behaviorism; emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, with focus on freedom and potential for personal growth

Clinical psychology

focus on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders

Cognition

the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge (thinking/conscious experience)

Positive psychology movement

shift in focus away from negative psychological issues, and instead a focus on positive elements of human experience

Psychiatry

an increasingly medical approach to psychological problems and disorders

Primacy

tendency to remember first information

Recency

tendency to remember most recent information

False memory

people can be convinced of information or even experiences when they are not true/never occurred

Spacing

studying broken into sessions generally leads to outperformance

Falsifiable

good scientific theories should be potentially wrong

Psychodynamic theory

Freud; belief in unconscious development/processing, mental processes, relationships, etc. in forming personality (more focus on interpersonal relationships, social factors, and development)

Correlational data

reveals relationship between variables; does not guarantee cause and effect

Experimental data

allows cause and effect statements

Independent variable

the condition or event an experimenter changes to see its impact on another variable

Dependent variable

the variable believed to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable

Experimental group

the subjects who receive some sort of special treatment based on the independent variable

Control group

similar subjects to experimental group, but they do not receive the same special treatment

Extraneous variables

any variables besides the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable; efforts are made by experimenters to control these

Confounding variables

when two variables are linked in a way where determining their separate effects becomes difficult

Descriptive/correlational research

procedure that only allows for observing correlation between variables due to lack of control (no cause-and-effect)

Correlation

when two variables are related to each other

Correlational coefficient

shows the degree to which two variables are related; +1 indicates perfect positive correlation; -1 indicates perfect negative correlation; 0 indicates no correlation

Naturalistic observation

careful observation of subjects by researchers without direct intervention

Reactivity

when a subject’s behavior is altered by the presence of an observer

Case studies

in-depth investigations of individual subjects; can include interviews, direct observation, and psychological testing 

Surveys

questionnaires or interviews to gather information about participants, usually that which cannot be observed

Sampling bias

occurs when a sample is not representative of the population it attempts to represent; causes inaccurate generalizations