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Why is photosynthesis so important?
It produces energy for all life
Where does photosynthesis occur?
In the chloroplasts
What are the structures of Chloroplasts?
Thylakoids, Grana, and Stroma
Define Thlakoids
Flattened internal membranes of chloroplasts
Define Grana
Stacks of thylakoids
Define Stroma
Space between the thylakoids and the inner membrane
What are the two reactions that make up photosynthesis?
Light dependent reactions (light energy converted to chemical energy) and light dependent reactions (The Calvin cycle)
Define Light
Electromagnetic radiation
What are the characteristics of light?
Particles (photons) and Wave (wavelength)
What do shorter wavelengths mean for light?
More energy
What do longer wavelengths mean for light?
Less energy
Define Photoelectric effect
Removal of an electron from a molecule by light
What do Photosynthesis Pigments absorb?
Wavelengths of light
What happens when a photon strikes a molecule?
Its energy is either lost as heat or absorbed by the electrons of the molecule
Define Absorption Spectrum
Range and efficiency of photons a molecule is capable of absorbing
Define Porphyrin ring
Light-absorbing “head” of molecule
Define Hydrocarbon tail
Interacts with hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
Define Carotenoids
Accessory pigments that absorb light and pass the energy on to chlorophyll
What does the Calvin Cycle do?
It uses energy of ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into sugars
What type of reactions if the Calvin Cycle?
An Endergonic Reaction (uses energy)
What is output by the Calvin Cycle?
G3P a 3-carbon sugar which is used to form sucrose and starch
What does the energy cycle do?
It uses products from respiration to produce glucose from G3P
Define Cellular Respiration
The process by which cells harvest energy by converting glucose to usable energy (ATP)
What are the four parts of Cellular Respiration?
Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Citric Acid Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain
How does the biochemical pathway break down glucose?
In a series of Redox Reactions
Define REDOX
Reduction Oxidation
Define Reduction
Gaining an electron
Define Oxidation
Losing an electron
What happens during Oxidation and Reduction?
Electrons carry energy from one molecule to another
Define Dehydrogenation
Lost electrons are accompanied by protons
Why is NAD+ an important electron acceptor?
It carries the electrons as the biochemical pathways break down glucose step by step
Why is ATP high energy?
The four negative charges in its three phosphate groups repel each other
Define the mechanism Substrate-level Phosphorylation
It transfers phosphate group directly to ADP during glycolysis
Define the mechanism Oxidative Phosphorylation
ATP Synthase uses energy from a proton gradient during the electron transport chain
What are the stages complete oxidation of glucose goes through?
Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Citric acid cycle, and Electron transport chain & chemiosmosis
Define Glycolysis
The conversion of 1 glucose to 2 pyruvate in the cytoplasm, as well as the production of 2 ATP and NADH
What must be recycled for glycolysis to continue?
NADH to NAD+
Define Aerobic Respiration
Oxygen is available as the final electron acceptor and produces significant amount of ATP
Define Fermentation
Oxygen is not available as the final electron acceptor and an organic molecule is used instead
What happens to pyruvate when oxygen present?
Pyruvate is oxidized (in mitochondria) to acetyle coenzyme A which enters the citric acid cycle
What happens to pyruvate when oxygen is not present?
Pyruvate is reduced in order to oxidize NADh back to NAD+
What are the products of pyruvate oxidation?
1 CO2, 1 NADH, 1 acetyl-CoA which consists of 2 carbons from pyruvate attached to coenzyme A
Define the Citric Acid Cycle
It oxidizes the acetyle group from pyruvate (in matrix of mitochondria)
What is glucose oxidized to after the citric acid cycle?
6 CO2, 4 ATP, 10 NADH, and 2 FADH2
Define Electron Transport Chain
A series of membrane bound electron carriers (proton pumps) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane
Define Chemiosmosis
The accumulation of protons in the inter membrane space driving protons into the matrix via diffusion
How much energy is yielded for bacterial cells?
32 ATP per glucose
How much energy is yielded for eukaryotic cells?
30 ATP per glucose
How is respiration regulated during glycolysis?
The molecule phosphofructokinase is inhibited by high levels of ATP
How is respiration regulated during the pyruvate oxidation/citric acid cycle?
Pyruvate dehydrogenase inhibited by high levels of NADH while Citrate synthetase is inhibited by high levels of ATP
Define catabolism of protein
Amino acids undergo deamination to remove the amino group
Define Catabolism of fat
Fats are broken down to fatty acids or glycerol
Define Thermodynamics
Branch of chemistry concerned with energy changes/transactions
Define Energy
The capacity to do work
What two states does energy exist in?
Kinetic and Potential
Define Kinetic energy
Energy in motion
Define Potential energy
Stored energy
If an object has a low temperature it is moving…
Slowly
If an object has a high temperature it is moving…
Rapidly
How many laws are there in thermodynamics?
2
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
That energy cannot be created or destroyed
Energy cannot be destroyed although it can…
Change from one form to another
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
That entropy (disorder) is continuously increasing
Energy transformations proceed spontaneously to convert matter from a more ordered form to a what ordered form
Less
Chemical reactions are spontaneous if…
They proceed without any continuous external influence
Spontaneity of a reactions is determined by two factors:
The amount of potential energy and the degree of order
What does it mean a chemical reaction is spontaneous?
Less organized, more entropy, less potential energy, and exergonic (energy goes out)
What does it mean a chemical reaction is non-spontaneous?
More organized, less entropy, more potential energy, and endergonic (requires energy)
Define Activation Energy
Extra energy required to destabilized existing bonds and initiate a chemical reaction
Cells can differ in what?
Size and Complexity
In cells structure correlates to what?
Function
Who discovered cells in 1665?
Robert Hooke
Who developed the Cell Theory?
Schleiden and Schwann
What are the characteristics of Modern Cell Theory?
All organisms are composed of one or more cells, Cells are the smallest living things, and Cells arise only from pre-existing cells
The rate of diffusion is affected by what?
Surface area available, Temperature, Concentration gradient, and Distance
Define Resolution
Minimum distance two points can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points
How large must objects be apart for naked eye to resolve them as two objects?
100 um
What are the two types of microscopes?
Light and Electron Microscopes
What are the characteristics of the light microscopes?
They use magnifying lenses with visible light and can resolve structures that are 200 nm apart
What are the characteristics of the electron microscopes?
They use a beam of electrons and can resolve structures that are 0.2 nm apart
What are the characteristics of the transmission electron?
It transmits electrons through material resulting in 3-D images
What are the three domains of life?
Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria
Which kingdoms are associated with eukaryote cells?
Plants, Fungi, Animals, and Protista
Define the nucleus (nucleoid)
Where DNA (genetic information) is located in the cell
Define Cytoplasm
Semifluid matrix of organelles and cytosol
Define Ribosome
Synthesizes proteins
Define Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid Bilayer
What structures are found in ALL cells?
Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, and Plasma Membrane
What are the characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?
They are the simplest organisms, lack a membrane-bound nucleus, cell wall is outside of plasma membrane, and contain ribosomes
What are the two types of prokaryotes?
Archaea and Bacteria
What are bacterial cell walls composed of?
Peptidoglycan
What is the function of the Bacterial Cell Wall?
It protects the cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake or loss of water
The bacterial cell wall makes it susceptible to what?
Antibiotics
What are the characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?
They have membrane-bound organelles and endomembrane system, possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain cellular structure
Define Nucleolus
Region where ribosomal RNA synthesis takes place
What are the characteristics of the Endomembrane System?
It is a series of membranes through the cytoplasm and divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur
What are the characteristics of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a rough appearance and synthesis’s proteins to be secreted, sent to lysosomes, vacuoles, or plasma membrane
What are the characteristics of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?
It has few bound ribosomes, has many enzymes embedded in its membranes, synthesis’s carb and lipids, stores intracellular Ca2+, and detoxifies foreign substances
Cells that carry out extensive lipid synthesis have more what?
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
