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What is ionisation energy ?
Ionisation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom.
What is Hund's rule ?
Hund's rule states that electrons fill orbitals of the same energy (degenerate orbitals) to give the maximum number of unpaired electrons with parallel spins.
What are the shapes of atomic orbitals for s, p, and d sub-levels ?
s orbital: Spherical shape
p orbitals: Dumbbell-shaped
d orbitals: More complex, often described as a cloverleaf shape
What are exceptions to the Aufbau principle, and why do they occur ?
Chromium (Cr): [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹
Copper (Cu): [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s¹
These exceptions occur because half-filled and fully filled sub-shells are more stable.
What are atomic orbitals, and how many electrons can each orbital hold ?
An atomic orbital is a region around the nucleus with a high probability of finding an electron.
Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins.
How many electrons can each sub-energy level hold (s, p, d, f) ?
s: 2 electrons
p: 6 electrons
d: 10 electrons
f: 14 electrons
How does the evidence from ionisation energies support the existence of sub-levels within energy levels ?
There are significant jumps in ionisation energy when electrons are removed from a different energy sub-level (e.g., 3p to 3s), indicating sub-levels like s, p, d, and f.
How does electron configuration help divide the periodic table into blocks ?
s-block: Groups 1 and 2 (s orbitals are filled)
p-block: Groups 13 to 18 (p orbitals are filled)
d-block: Transition metals (d orbitals are filled)
f-block: Lanthanides and Actinides (f orbitals are filled)
How do you write abbreviated electron configurations using noble gas notation ?
Example for Calcium (Ca): [Ar] 4s²
This shows that the core electron configuration is represented by the nearest noble gas (Argon in this case).
How do you determine the electron configuration of transition metal ions ?
Transition metal ions lose electrons from the 4s orbital first before the 3d orbital.
Example: Vanadium (V) has an electron configuration of [Ar] 4s² 3d³. As V²⁺, the configuration is [Ar] 3d³.
How do you determine the electron configuration of ions ?
Find the electron configuration of the neutral atom.
Add or remove electrons based on the charge.
For s-block and p-block elements, electrons are removed from the highest energy sub-level first.
How do you calculate the energy of a photon given its wavelength ?
Formula: E=h×c/λ, where:
λ = wavelength
c = speed of light (3 × 10⁸ m/s)
h = Planck's constant
How can you calculate ionisation energy for a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
Multiply the ionisation energy of a single hydrogen atom by Avogadro's constant (6.02 × 10²³) to get the energy for one mole.
How can ionisation energy be calculated using the convergence limit in the Lyman series ?
Using the formula E=h×f, where f is the frequency at the convergence limit, you can calculate the ionisation energy for a hydrogen atom.
