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vocabulary from prelude and chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, & 19
Geologist
A scientist who specializes in studying the Earth
Geology (geoscience)
The study of the Earth, including our planet’s composition, behavior, and history
Lithosphere
The relatively rigid, nonflowable, outer 100-150 km-thick layer of the Earth, constituting the crust and the top part of the mantle
Asthenosphere
The layer of the mantle that lies between 100-150 km and 350 km deep; the asthenosphere is relatively soft and can flow when acted on by force
Plate
One of about 20 distinct pieces of the relatively rigid lithosphere
Theory of plate tectonics
the theory that the outer layer of the Earth (the lithosphere) consists of separate plates that move with respect to one another
earth system
The interacting assembly of physical and biological reservoirs and phenomena involving the solid Earth, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere
Internal process
A process in the Earth System, such as plate motion, mountain building, or volcanism, ultimately caused by the Earth’s internal heat
External process
A geomorphologic process—such as downslope movement, erosion, or deposition—that is the consequence of gravity or of the interaction between solid Earth and its fluid envelope (air and water); energy for these processes comes from gravity and sunlight
Gravity
the attractive force that one mass exerts on another; the magnitude depends on the size of the objects and the distance between them
Geologic time
The span of time since the formation of the Earth
geologic time scale
A scale that describes the intervals of the geologic time
Science
The systematic study of natural phenomena via observation, computation, experiment, and modeling
Scientific method
A sequence of steps for systematically analyzing scientific problems in a way that leads to verifiable results
Hypothesis
An idea that has the potential to explain a phenomenon; a hypothesis must be rigorously tested if it is to eventually become a theory
Shatter cones
Small, cone-shaped fractures formed by the shock of a meteorite impact
Theory
A scientific idea supported by an abundance of evidence that has passed many tests and failed none
Scientific law
A concise statement that completely describes a natural relationship or phenomenon; it does not, however, explain the phenomenon
Cosmology
The study of the overall structure of the Universe
Geocentric model
An Ancient Greek idea suggesting that the Earth sat motionless in the center of the Universe while stars and other planets and the Sun orbited around it
Heliocentric model
An idea proposed by Greek philosophers around 250 BCE suggesting that all heavenly objects including the Earth orbited the Sun
Element
A material consisting entirely of one kind of atom; elements cannot be subdivided or changed by chemical reactions
atom
The smallest piece of an element that has the properties of the element; it consists of a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud
Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
atomic mass
The amount of matter in an atom; roughly, the sum of the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus
Molecule
The smallest piece of a compound that has the properties of the compound; consists of 2 or more atoms attached by chemical bonds
Gas
Matter that consists of atoms or molecules that are not attached to each other; fills the container that contains it
Liquid
Matter that can flow to conform to the shape of the container that holds it
Solid
A material that can maintain its shape indefinitely
Energy
The capacity to do work
Universe
All of the space and all of the matter and energy within it
star
An object in the Universe in which fusion reactions occur, producing vast amounts of energy
Galaxy
An immense system of hundreds of billions of stars
Solar system
Our Sun and the materials that orbit it (including planets, moons, asteroids, Kuiper Belt objects, and Oort Cloud objects)
Planet
an object that orbits a star, is roughly spherical, and has cleated its neighborhood of other objects
Ecliptic
the plane defined by a planet’s orbit
Terrestrial planets
Planets that are of comparable size and character to the Earth and consist of a metallic core surrounded by a rock mantle
Giant planets
The four outer, or Jovian, planers of our Solar System, which are significantly larger than the rest of the planets and consist largely of gas and/or ice
Moon
A sizable solid body locked in orbit around a planet
Asteroid
One of the fragments of solid material, left over from a planet formation or produced by collision of planetesimals, that resides between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
Comet
A ball of ice and dust, probably remaining from the formation of the Solar System, that orbits the Sun
Expanding Universe Theory
The theory that the whole Universe must be expanding because galaxies in every direction seem to be moving away from us
Big bang theory
A theory suggested by scientists in which a cataclysmic explosion represents the formation of the Universe; before this event, all matter and all energy were packed into one volume-less point
Nuclear fusion
The process by which the nuclei of atoms fuse together, thereby creating new, larger atoms
Big bang Nucleosynthesis
The formation of new atomic nuclei (mostly hydrogen and helium) during the Big Bang
Nebula
A cloud of gas or dust in space
Vacuum
Space that contains very little matter in a given volume (e.g. a region in which air has been removed)
Thermal energy
The total kinetic energy in a material due to the vibration and movement of atoms in the material
Heat
Thermal energy resulting from the movement of molecules
Temperature
A measure of the hotness or coldness of a material
Accretion disk
A pancake-shaped accumulation of matter that forms as a nebula and then transforms into a star and its associated planets; the bulbous central zone of the accretion disk become the star
Protostar
A dense body of gas that is collapsing inward because of gravitational forces and that may eventually become a star
Supernova
A short-lived, very bright object in space that results from the cataclysmic explosion marking the death of a very large star; the explosion ejects large quantities of matter into space to form new nebulae
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
The production of new, larger atoms by fusion reactions in stars; the process generates more massive elements that were not produced by the Big Bang
stellar wind
The stream of atoms emitted from a star into space
Nebular theory of planet formation
The concept that planets grow out of rings of gas, dust, and ice, surrounding a newborn star
Protoplanetary disk
The plate-shaped region of gas and dust, surrounding the newborn Sun, from which the planets formed
volatiles (volatile materials)
Elements or compounds such as H2O and CO2 that evaporate at relatively low temperatures and can exist in gaseous forms at the Earth’s surface
Refractory materials
Substances that have a relatively high melting point and tend to exist in solid form
Planetesimal
Tiny, solid pieces of rock and metal that collect in a planetary nebula and eventually accumulate to form a planet
Protoplanet
A body that has green by the accumulation of planetesimals but has not yet become a planet
Differentiation (of a planet)
A process early in a planet’s history during which dense iron alloy melted and sank downward to form the core, leaving less dense mantle behind
Magnetic filed
The region affected by the force emanating from a magnet
Dipole
A magnetic field with a north and south pole, like that of a bar magnet
Magnetosphere
The region protected from the electrically charged particles of the solar winds by the Earth’s magnetic field
Earth system
the interacting assembly of physical and biological reservoirs and phenomena involving the solid earth, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere
Groundwater
Water that resides under the surface of the earth, mostly in pores or cracks of rock or sediment
Hydrosphere
The earth’s water, including surface water (lakes, rivers, and oceans), groundwater, and liquid water in the atmosphere
Cryosphere
The realm of the earth system that consists of frozen water (ice); it includes glaciers, sea ice, and permafrost
Geosphere
In the context of the earth system, the solid part of the earth from the surface to the center
Topography
Variations in elevation
Bathymetry
Variations in depth
Earth materials
a general term for the great variety of substances that make up this planet
Organic chemical
A carbon-containing compound that occurs in living organisms, or that resembles such compounds; it consists of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms along with varying amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and other chemicals
Mineral
A naturally occurring solid inorganic substance with a definable chemical composition and an internal structure characterized by an orderly arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a lattice; most are inorganic
Crystal
A single, continuous piece of a mineral bounded by flat surfaces that formed naturally as the mineral grew
Glass
A solid in which atoms are not arranged in an orderly pattern
Melt
Molten (liquid) rock
Rock
A coherent, naturally occurring solid, consisting of an aggregate of minerals or a mass of glass
Grain
A fragment of a mineral crystals or of a rock
Sediment
An accumulation of loose mineral grains, such as boulders, pebbles, sand, silt, or mud, that are not cemented together
Metal
a solid composed almost entirely of atoms of metallic elements; it is generally opaque, shiny, smooth, malleable, and can conduct electricity
Silicate rock
rock composed of silicate minerals
Biosphere
The region of the earth and atmosphere inhabited by life; this region stretches from a few km below the earth’s surface to a few km above
meteor
A streak of bright, glowing, gas created as a meteoroid vaporizes in the atmosphere due to friction
meteorite
A piece of rock or metal alloy that fell from space and landed on the earth
Crust
The rock that makes up the outermost layer of the earth
Moho
The seismic-velocity discontinuity that defines the boundary between the earths crust and mantle
Mantle
The thick layer of rock below the earths crust and above the core
Core
The dense, iron-rich center of the earth
Continental drift
The hypothesis that continents have moved and are still moving slowly across the Earth’s surface
Mid-ocean ridge
A 2 km high submarine mountain belt that forms along a divergent oceanic plate boundary
Trench
A deep, elongated trough bordering a volcanic arc; a trench defines the trace of a convergent plate boundary
Volcanic arc
A curving chain of active volcanoes formed adjacent to a convergent plate boundary
Fracture zone
A narrow band of vertical fractures in the ocean floor; lie roughly at right angles to a mid-ocean ridge, and the actively slipping part is a transform fault
Seamount
An isolated submarine mountain
Seismic belts
The relatively narrow strips of crust on the earth at which most earthquakes occur
Seafloor spreading
the gradual widening of an ocean basin as new oceanic crust forms at a mid-ocean ridge axis and then moves away from the axis
Paleomagnetism
The record of ancient magnetism preserved in rock
Magnetic declination
The angle between the direction a compass needle points at a given location and the direction of true north
Note
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