AP Psych Unit 2

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

automatic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Soma

cell body

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axons

Carry impulses away from the cell body

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

sodium-potassium pump

a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

inhibition

a feeling that makes one self-conscious and unable to act in a relaxed and natural way

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

Does not mimic neurochemicals and blocks neural pathways

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Thyroid

regulates metabolism

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

testes and ovaries

reproductive hormones

(endocrine system)

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces

feature receptors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

hemispheric specialization

The control of distinct neurological functions by the right and left hemispheres of the brain.

brain lateralization

specialization of function in each hemisphere

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Gazzinga

Split brain research

Sperry

split brain in mice - two hemispheres seemed to learn despite being separated

vision

the ability to see

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

ganglion cells

their axons form the optic nerve

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

trichromatic theory

theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

audition

the sense or act of hearing

hammer

A tiny bone that passes vibrations from the eardrum to the anvil

anvil

A tiny bone that passes vibrations from the hammer to the stirrup

stirrup

A tiny U shaped bone that passes vibrations from the anvil to the cochlea.

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Amplitude

Height of a wave

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

Olfaction

sense of smell

nasal cavity

nose

olfactory bulb

a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes

kinethesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sacs

organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body's sense of balance

semicircular canals

three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement

touch

pressure, pain, temperature

pain

an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

Noniceptors

sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

phantom limbs

misleading "sensations" from missing limbs

empathy

the ability to understand and share the feelings of another

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

taste

the sensation of flavor perceived in the mouth and throat on contact with a substance.

psychological influences

learned fears and other learned expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations

Sensory Disorders

visual and hearing impairments

color blindness

a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors

sensorineural

permanent hearing loss that results from damage or malformation of the middle ear and auditory nerve

conductive loss

hearing loss resulting from damage to the outer or middle ear

Fechner

psychophysics

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

signal detection

this theory predicts how and in what circumstances we can detect a stimulus; assumes there is no single threshold

subliminal messages

brief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus