Exam 2 - week 6

Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide in animals it’s stored, mainly in liver and muscle cells

Hydrolysis of glycol in the cells releases what

Glucose, when the demand for sugar increases

Cellulose

A polysaccharide, a major component of the tough wall of plant cells

Cellulose is a polymer of what

Glucose

Chitin

Structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods, provide structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

Lipids

One class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers

How do lipids mix with water?

They mix very poorly, if at all

What do lipids consist mostly of?

Hydrocarbon regions

What are the biologically important lipids?

Fats, phospholipids, and steroids

Fats

Constructed from two types of smaller molecules, glycerol and fatty acids

Glycerol consists of what

3-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

Fatty acid consist of what

Carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

Saturated fatty acids have

Have the max number of hydrogen atoms possible, and no double bonds, straight, solid at room temp

Unsaturated fatty acids have

One or more double bonds, kinked, liquid at room temp

What are saturated fats?

Fats made from saturated fatty acids and are solid at room temperature

What are unsaturated fats?

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids and liquid at room temperature

Hydrogenation

Process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

What is the major function of fats?

Energy storage for humans and mammals for long-term food reserves

Phospholipid

Two fatty acids, and a phosphate group or attached to glycerol

What happens when phospholipids are added to water?

They self assemble into double layer, sheets, called bilayers at the surface of a cell

What do bilayers form?

Boundary between cells and environment

Steroids

Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

Cholesterol

Type of steroid component in animal cell membranes in a precursor from which other steroids are synthesized

Enzymes are what

Proteins that act as catalyst to speed up chemical reactions, they can perform functions, repeatedly functioning as work horses that carry out processes of life

Polypeptides or what

Unbranched polymers built from amino acids

Amino acids

Organic molecules with amino and carbon groups

Peptide bonds

Amino acids linked by covalent bonds

Polypeptide is a polymer of what

Amino acids

What does the sequence of amino acids determine?

A proteins 3-D structure

What does a protein structure determine?

How it functions

What are the four levels of protein?

Primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure

Primary structure of protein

It’s unique sequence of amino acids

Secondary structure of protein

Found in most proteins, consist of coils and folds in polypeptide chain

Tertiary structure of protein

Determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups)

Quaternary structure of proteins

Results when a protein consist of multiple polypeptide chains from one macromolecule

What are the 2-D levels of protein structure?

Primary structure and secondary structure

What is primary structure determined by?

Inherited genetic info, like the order of letters in a long word

What do the coils and folds in secondary structure result from

Result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituentsof polypeptide backbone

What are the 3-D levels of protein structures?

tertiary structure and quaternary structure

Interactions of tertiary structures

Hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der waals interactions

Denaturation

Loss of proteins, native structure, biologically, inactive

Nucleic acids do what

Store transmit and help express hereditary info

Gene

Consist of DNA, amino acid sequence of polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called gene

Nucleic acid is made of what

Nucleotides

What are the two types of nucleic acid?

DNA and RNA

Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA)

Provides directions for its own replication, direct synthesis of Messenger RNA(mRNA)

Gene expression

A process in which DNA uses mRNA to control protein synthesis

What is the flow of genetic info?

DNA→ RNA → protein

Polynucleotides

Nucleic acids that are polymers, made of monomers called nucleotides

What does each nucleotide of a polynucleotide consist of?

Nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups

Nucleoside

The proportion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group (nucleoside= nitrogen base+ sugar)

What are the two families of nitrogen bases?

Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine and uracil)

Purines (adenine and guanine)

Deoxyribose

Sugar in DNA

Ribose

Sugar in RNA

What are nucleotides linked by?

A Phosphodiester linkage to build a polynucleotide

Phosphodiester linkage

Consists of a phosphate group that links the sugars of 2 nucleotides which create the backbone of sugar

DNA structure

DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around imaginary axis forming a double helix

Anti-parallel (DNA structure)

When backbone run in opposite directions from each other

What does one DNA molecule include

Many genes

Complementary base pairing- Only certain bases in DNA pair up and form hydrogen bonds, which are

Adenine (A) with thymine (T) and guanine (G) with cytosine (C)

RNA Structures

Single stranded, complementary pairing can also occur between two or in a molecules or between two parts of the same molecule it’s more variable form compared to DNA

RNA pairings

Uracil (U) and Adenine(A)

Nucleus contains most of DNA in what cells

Eukaryotic cells

Ribosomes use info from the DNA to make what

Proteins

Nucleus contains

Most of the cells genes, and is usually the most conspicuous organelle

Nuclear envelope

Encloses the nucleus, separating it from side of plasm, is a double membrane, each membrane consists of lipid viler

Pores

Regulate entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus

Nuclear matrix

Framework of protein, fiber throughout the interior of the nucleus

Chromosomes

Units in which DNA organized within the nucleus

Chromatin

Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule associated with proteins

Chromatin condenses to form what

Discrete chromosomes as a cell repairs to

Nucleolus

Located within the nucleus - site of RNA synthesis

Ribosomes

Complexes made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) protein

What two locations do ribosomes build proteins in

Cytosol (free ribosomes), on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

Ribosomes can alternate between

Being free and bound

Endomembrane system consist of

Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells, is continuous with the nuclear envelope

Two regions of the ER

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth ER

Lacks ribosomes, synthesizes lipids, detoxifies, drugsand poisons, stores calcium ions

Rough ER

Membrane factory for cell - Surface stud with ribosomes, has bound ribosomes, distributes, transport vehicles, proteins and surrounded by membranes

Golgi apparatus

Consist of flatten membranous sax called cisternae

Golgi apparatus modifies what

Products of the ER and manufactures certain macromolecules, sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

Lysome

Membranous sac of hydroytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules

Lysol enzymes work best in what type of environment inside the lysosome

Anesthetic environment

Phagocytosis

When one cell engulf another cell forming a food vacuole

Why do you lysosomes use enzymes?

To recycle cells own organelles and macromolecules using a process called autophagy

Vacule

Large vehicles, derived from ER and Golgi apparatus

Mitochondria

Sites of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP

What cells is ATP found in

Animal and plant cells

Chloroplast

Site of photosynthesis, found in plant and algae

Peroxisomes

Oxidative organelles

Mitochondrial matrix

Where metabolic steps of cellular respiration or catalyze

Tannins

Compounds produced in most plants that defend the plant against herbivores and protect the plant from UV rays

Tannosome

Organelle, forming condensed tannins in the chlorophyllous organs of tracheophyta

Thylakoids

Inside, chloroplast swell and pearl to form spheres(the tannosomes)

peroxisomes

Specialized metabolic compartments, bounded by single membranes

Peroxisomes contain what

Enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from very substances, transfer them to oxygen which forms, hydrogen peroxide, and enzymes of peroxisome convert to water

Cytoskeleton

Network of fibers, extending throughout cytoplasm, which organizes structures in activities in the cell

Three types of molecular structures of cytoskeleton

Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments

Microtubules

Thickest, hollow, cell shape and motility, chromosome movements in cell division, organelle movements