psychology wace unit 3:

memory def

the processes used to encode, store, retain and retrieve info

sensation def

the intitial detection and processing of stimuli from 5 senses

sensation steps

reception- receiving stimuli from senses

transduction- transforming stimuli into impulses

transmission- delivering impulse to brain for processing

Perception definition

process of interpreting stimuli to give it meaning

perception steps

selection- filtering important info for brain

organisation- grouping features of stimuli into whole

interpretation- brain uses knowledge and experience to give meaning to info

sensation vs perception difference

sensation allows for perception.

sensation receives info, perception gives it meaning

Role of attention in memory- selective vs divided

selective = focusing on specific stimuli and ignoring other, encodes specific info into memory

divided- focus on multiple stimuli at once- weaker encoding and retrieval

cocktail part effect - cherry 1953: aim

explore how divided attention effects processing of info

cherry 1953 procedure

participants wore headphones with two different messages in either ear. then asked to repeat one message known as the attended message while disregarding other message

cherry 1953 findings

participants fully recalled attended message, with little info known about ignored message e.g didn't know gender, tone- demonstrating selective attention

processes of memory

Encoding

transforming sensory info into form brain can use and interpret

Storage

retention of info in memory for retrieval

Retrieval

accessing and recalling stored info when needed

models for memory: multi store model- (Atkinson, shiffrin 1968)- sensory register + STM

sensory register: receives all sensory info from 5 senses and encodes it into form for brain

STM:

duration = 0-18 seconds

capacity= 7+/-2 items

encoding= mainly auditory

multistore model- LTM + procedural memory

LTM:

duration= unlimited

capacity= unlimited

encoding= mainly semantic but can be auditory or visual

procedural (implicit memory)

storage of how we do things e.g motor skills. automatic memory does not require retrieval as is subconscious

multistore model: declarative memory

explicit memory- conscious retrieval of info on events, people and experiences.

can be episodic- memory of events or experiences experienced. depends on interpretation and encoding

can be semantic- general facts or info about the world

models for memory: working memory model (baddeley, hitch 1974, 2000)

central executive:

phonological loop

visio spatial sketchpad

episodic buffer

working memory model: central executive

control centre of working memory

determines selective attention (what's relevant)

coordinates activities of other subsystems

working memory model: phonological loop

stores and processes phonological info(language)

stored in wernickes and brooks area

responsible for all verbal info

working memory model:Visio-spatial sketchpad

stores and processes visual info e.g shape, colour, pattern, position

located in occipital lobe (visual cortex)

responsible for spatial images and relationships

working memory model: episodic buffer

links info across domains so visual, spatial and verbal info can be integrated.

responsible for what, when and where happened

located in parietal lobe for processing and short term episodic memory

structures of the brain role in memory: hippocampus

critical in formation, sorting and storage of memory, particularly consolidation of STM into LTM

involved in formation consolidation and retrieval of episodic declarative memory

part of limbic system

role of hippocampus: HM case study- aim:

for psychologists and neuroscientists to better understand the hippocampus and its function

HM- who was he

suffered from epilepsy

developed more severe as he aged --> too disabled to work

treatments were unsuccesfull

at age 27- he agreed to undergo a radical first ever surgery, that would involve removing his hippocampus

then experienced profound amnesia, losing ability to form new memories while retaining those from surgery

HM - key findings

resulted in anterograde amnesia- inability to form new declarative (explicit) memories after surgery- couldn't learn new words, facts, faces

would forget who he was talking to after walking away

remained ability to improve in tasks after practice showing implicit procedural memory remained intact

structures of brain role in memory: cerebellum

crucial in formation and storage of implicit procedural memory- how we do things (motor skills)

cerebellum encodes and fine tunes motor skills and habits to form and store procedural memory

receives sensory input from cerebral cortex and integrates info with motor commands to create smooth movement - contributing to formation of procedural memory.

also strengthens synaptic connections enhancing transmission of signal to create smoother movement

structures of brain role in memory: amygdala

emotional encoding:

encodes emotional experiences into memory, sensitive to emotionally arousing stimuli prioritising formation and storage of memories significant to wellbeing

memory consolidation:

emotional amygdala input consolidates memories being formed by hippocampus, making them stored stronger

enhanced retrieval:

as attention towards vivid and emotional stimulus is prioritised, this content is more likely to be recalled accurately.

types of forgetting

retrieval failure. interference. motivated forgetting, decay

retrieval failure

unable to retrieve specific info from LTM

in order to retrieve info, cue is needed, if there is no cue this can result in retrieval failure

interference

newly learned info gets in the way of old or similar info

retroactive interference: new info causes forgetting old

proactive interference: old info causes forgetting new

motivated forgetting

freud suggested people forget info that is unpleasant, as they repress these feelings into their subconscious out of desire for comfort

displacement (decay) theory

due to STM's limited capacity, newly learnt info displaces previous info

remembering: def retrieval

process of accessing and recalling stored info from memory when needed

remembering: methods of retrieval:

recall

recognition

relearning

methods of retrieval: recall

being asked to produce info without cues or very few cues

free recall: remembering in no order

serial recall: remembering in order

cued recall: given a cue then asked to recall

methods of retrieval: recognition

identifying correct info among alternatives - easier as provides cues

methods of retrieval: relearning

even when you can't recall or recognise- there is still memory

info is learnt faster the second time because they was still some memory

levels of processing model (craik and Lockhart 1972)

idea that the way info is encoded affects how well it is encoded. deeper the level of processing- better recall

shallow processing: structural- phonemic

deep processing: semantic

levels of processing: shallow

only involves maintenance rehearsal (e.g repetition) and leads to short term retention of info

structural processing: encoding appearance of something

phonemic processing: encoding sound of something

levels of processing: deep

involves elaboration rehearsal- meaningful analysis of info resulting in better recall

semantic processing: encoding the meaning of something and relating to things with similar meaning

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (craik and tulving 1975)- aim

to investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (craik and tulving 1975)- method

participants presented with series of 60 words about which they had to answer 1 of 3 questions

structural processing- is the word in capital or small letters?

phonemic processing- does the word rhyme with?

semantic processing- does the word go in this sentence?

participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed. they were asked to pick out the original words

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (craik and tulving 1975)- key findings

participants were able to recall more words that had been semantically processed than those structurally and phonemically processed

rehearsal as a strategy to improve memory

practicing material helps us remember it

more rehearsal = more memory

elaborate rehearsal:

meaningful analysis of info for better storage and retrieval

consolidates info into LTM

maintenance rehearsal:

repetition of info to be encoded into STM, leads to forgetting after short period of time

role of repetition- ebbinghaus' forgetting curve (1885)

repetition = repeated exposure to info slightly improves retention each time, provides more opportunities for it to be encoded, also makes memory more resistant to decay

curve provides graphical representation of forgetting process, demonstrating decline of memory if no effort is made to remember it.

causes of memory loss: chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)- why does it occur

repeated physical trauma to the head. second impact syndrome- second head injury occurs before the previous has had time to recover

chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)- how does it impact brain

results is death of nerve cells in the brain

chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)- behaviour and emotional symptoms

behavioural- impulsiveness, agression

emotional- depression, emotional instability

chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) impact on memory

STM loss

dementia

degenerative alzheimers disease - why does it occur

due to accumulation of beta amyloid peptides, forming clumps of amyloid plaque. these plaques block connections between neutrons. also inside neutrons, chemical changes cause damaged tau proteins, causing microtubules to tangle. these tangles disrupt neuron function. this combination causes widespread neural death, resulting in cognitive impairments.

degenerative alzheimers disease- impact on brain

STM is first affected, progressing to LTM. also effects other brain functions such as language, and behaviour.

degenerative alzheimers disease- behavioural and emotional affects

behavioural- repeating oneself, vague conversations, unable to do routine tasks.

emotional- depression, apathy, aggression

degenerative alzheimers disease- impact on memory

STM first- forgetting recent or current events. then LTM- forgetting friends, family, unable to speak

drug induced wernickes Korsakoff syndrome

def learning

permanent change in behaviour to make a response occur due to a new experience

def classical conditioning

type of learning in which organisms responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about a certain response

explain elements of classical conditioning

neutral stimulus - (stimulus that does not typically produce a response), is paired and associated with unconditioned stimulus- (stimulus that naturally triggers a response without learning required)

conditioned stimulus (previously neutral stimulus) is repeated alongside unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering a conditioned response (learned behaviour towards conditioned stimulus).

unconditioned response= automatic reaction to unconditioned stimulus.

stimulus generalisation- when similar stimulus produces conditioned response

stimulus discrimination- when organism only responds to conditioned stimulus, not even similar things

extinction- condition response fades over time eventually disappearing

spontaneous recovery- spontaneously the conditioned response reappears after extinction

classical conditioning: pavlovs dogs 1902- Ivan pavlov- aim

determine the role of salivary secretion in the digestion of food, and the ability to condition the behaviour of dogs with certain stimulus

classical conditioning: pavlovs dogs 1902- Ivan pavlov- method

experimental

Pavlov made apparatus which measured amount of salivary secretion when dog eats. saliva was unconditioned response of dogs to unconditioned response of food. dogs were restrained to avoid extraneous variables. meat powder was placed on dog tongue or bowl and apparatus measuring salivary secretion was surgically attached to dogs cheek.

neutral stimulus- metronome

unconditioned stimulus- meat powder

unconditioned response- salivation

conditioned response- salivation to metronome

classical conditioning: pavlovs dogs 1902- Ivan pavlov- key findings

dog developed conditioned response of salivation towards metronome. Pavlov found that for association to be made, the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus have to be paired together at same time. also found stimulus generalisation- that dogs would salivate to similar neutral stimulus of metronome, such as bell

classical conditioning: littler albert (1920)- John b Watson- aim

test if fears can be acquired through classical conditioning

classical conditioning: littler albert (1920)- John b Watson- method

experimental.

after gaining permission from mother, and observing Watson was not naturally afraid of white rat before conditioning.

after 2 months from initial observation, albert over 2 sessions one week apart, the neutral stimulus of the white rat was paired with a unconditioned stimulus of a hammer striking a metal bar, producing a unconditioned response of anxiety. after these sessions Albert reacted with crying and avoidance upon seeing the white rat, asocciating it with a anxiety inducing noise.

neutral stimulis- white rat

unconditioned stimulus- hammer against metal

unconditioned response- anxiety, crying

conditioned stimus- white rat

conditioned response- anxiety, crying

classical conditioning: littler albert (1920)- John b Watson- findings

little Albert became avoidant and started to cry at sight of white rat, showing signs of fear. this would fade as time went on - showing extinction, as white rat is no longer associated with hammer striking metal pole. stimulus generalisation was observed - generalising to fear response to fluffy white things such as cotton wool

def operant conditioning

when behaviour is followed by a consequence (pos. or neg) to either strengthen or weaken the reoccurrence of the behaviour

3 phase model of operant conditioning

antecedent- stimulus before behaviour

behaviour- behaviour in response to antecedent

consequence- outcome of behaviour (reinforcement or punishment)

operant conditioning: reinforcement

occurs when a consequence strengthens the reoccurrence of a behaviour

positive- something is added to promote reoccurrence e.g praise, money

negative- something is taken away to promote reoccurrence e.g removal of chores

operant conditioning: punishment

occurs when a consequence decreases reoccurrence of behaviour

positive- something is added to decrease reoccurrence e.g detention

negative- something is added to decrease reoccurrence e.g taking away Childs toy

operant conditioning: schedules of reinforcement

control the timing of delivery of reinforcement

ratio- reinforced after a certain number of responses e.g every 3 target responses, there is reward

fixed ratio- amount of responses between reinforcements is set. e.g weekly wage

variable ratio- amount of responses between reinforcements changes every time e.g gambling

interval - responses are reinforced after a certain interval of time e.g rewarded for study every 30 mins

operant conditioning- law of effect- thorndike 1898- aim

examine influence of reinforcement on cats behaviour - escaping puzzle box

operant conditioning- law of effect- thorndike 1898- method

hungry cats placed in box with automatic doors opened by pressing button in cage, thorndike timed how long it took to escape. at first cats trialed and errored ways e.g scratch bite. thorndike then put food outside cage as reward, eventually they found button to open cage. they were put in multiple times to see if they got quicker to escape

operant conditioning- law of effect- thorndike 1898- findings

after around 10 times, cats learned to press level to escape box and receive food- escaping immediately.

operant conditioning: Skinner box (skinner, 1948) - aim

demonstrate operant conditioning in pigeons

operant conditioning: Skinner box (skinner, 1948) - method

pigeons made hungry- reduced to 75% of well fed weight. placed in cage with food hopper that could be presented for 5 seconds at time. instead of pigeons being rewarded based on behaviour production, instead rewarded at regular intervals- fixed interval.

operant conditioning: Skinner box (skinner, 1948) - observations

over time pigeons began to associate food delivery with behaviour they were doing at that time at point in time food was given. this led birds to reproduce behaviour believing eventually it would cause food.

operant conditioning: Skinner box (skinner, 1948) - key findings

pigeons became superstitious e.g turning counter clockwise to receive food. these behaviours occurred after period timing of food hopper began to occur hence pigeons associated their behaviour with the food. found that the shorter the interval between reward- the quicker they were conditioned. one conditioned behaviour occurred, the interval between food deliveries could be extended without diminished behaviour.

def social learning theory

learning from observing the behaviour of a model. watching and imitating their specific behaviours

process of observational learning

1. attention- something noticed in environment, observer must pay attention to learn, influenced by characteristics of the model

2. retention- observer must remember the behaviour, dependent on their ability to encode info

3. reproduction- observer duplicates action, relies on physical and intellectual ability to produce action

4. motivation- observer is either reinforced or punished for action, determining whether they repeat or avoid behaviour in future

define vicarious reinforcement

observer takes into account the reactions of others to the behaviour of the model before deciding on whether or not to copy the model

social learning: bandura and ross bobo doll experiment (1961)-aim

Bandura (1961) conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviors (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation.

ocial learning: bandura and ross bobo doll experiment (1961)- method

72 children, 36 boys 36 girls were divided into 3 groups

one group observed an adult being aggressive towards a bobo doll

one group observed a non aggressive adult

a control group had no exposure to any model

afterward the children were brought into a room of toys, in which the bobo doll was in

ocial learning: bandura and ross bobo doll experiment (1961)- observations and key findings

children exposed to the aggressive model showed more aggressive behaviour. males on average were more physically agressive. found that children imitate the behaviour they observe, highlighting observational learning in children.

application of learning theories to modify behaviour: what is systematic desensitisation

is a behaviour therapy used to treat phobias that attempts to replace an anxiety or fear response with a relaxation response through classical conditioning. results in extinction of previous conditioned response by creating a new CS/CR association

systematic desensitisation procedure

1. Person is taught to relax

2. Break down the fear arousing scenario into logical steps ranked least to most fear inducing

3. Therapist teaches person deep muscle relaxation technique and asks patient to imagine the least frightening scene on the list and so on

4. By the end, patient learns to associate most frightening scene with deep muscle relaxation, a unfearful action

5. Best results come from real life desensitisation, such as therapist sitting on plane with patient or patient introducing themselves to pilot for reassurance on safety.

token economy def

behaviour modification program that uses operant conditioning to create desired behaviour in population of people

token economy elements

· Uses tokens that can be exchanged for something desirable as reinforcers

· Model behaviour such as cooperation and compliance are rewarded with tokens

· These tokens have no intrinsic value and are 'secondary reinforcers'

· But can be exchanged for 'primary reinforcers' which are tangible or desirable items wanted by the person.

· Examples of tokens include gold stars in school, money in society.

· Relies on principle of generalisation- idea that desired behaviour when reinforced and established in an institution, will be generalised to outside the institution e.g high school to society