AP Psychology Unit 4 Study Guide

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Transduction

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds and smells, into neural impulse our brain can interpret.

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Sensation

Process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Prosopagnosia

face blindness- Perfect vision but cannot recognize faces. Not friends, dates, husband, children, parents.

Top- down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Bottom up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. (light, sound, taste, pressure or odor)

Difference Threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

Change Blindness

Failing to notice change in an environment.

Cocktail Party Effect

our ability to attend to only one voice among many (while also be able to detect your own name in an unattended voice)

Selective Attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Weber's Law

the principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant min. percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names green blue etc.

Sensory Adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

Amplitude

Height of a wave

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that can pass a point in a given time.

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Feature Detection

the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges

Oval Window

membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

Sensory Interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Parallel Processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Blind Sight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Signal Detection Theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Psychophysics

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

Place Theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

Subliminal Theory

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Phi Phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

Gate Control Theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

McGurk Effect (within sensory interaction)

what happens when the eye and ear disagree

Retinal Disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Subliminal perception (absolute threshold)

stimuli that is below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Synesthesia

describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")

Kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

Frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

ESP

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Tinnitus

ringing or buzzing in the ears

Psychokinesis

ability to move objects with one's mind

Clairvoyance

perceiving remote events

Telepathy

mind to mind communication

Precognition

perceiving future events

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

Young-Helmholtz Theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-Process Theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Figure Ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Proximity

when objects are close together we will perceive them as one whole object

Interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

Relative Clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

Context effects

memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place