psychology 🤭🤭

sensation: Reception

Stimulus energy is detected by the sensory receptors.

Sensation: Transduction

Sensory receptors transform stimulus energy into electrochemical signals

Sensation: Transmission

Electrochemical signals are sent to the area responsible for processing that stimulus energy

Perception: Selection

Brain focuses on important features and filtering out irrelevant details

Perception: Organisation

Once the info is selected, the sensory info is arranged and grouped into a meaningful pattern

Perception: interpretation

Meaning is assigned to the organised patterns, which forms a mental representation of the world.

Atkinson and shiffrins multi-store model of memory (1968): Sensory register

The memory store where sensory information is briefly held before decaying or transferring to the short term store

Sensory register: Echoic memory

Subsystem of sensory register, that stores auditory information for 2-3 seconds

Sensory register: iconic memory

Subsystem of sensory register that stores visual information for about 200-250 milliseconds

Multi store model: Sensory register, encoding, capacity, duration

Encoding: visual and acoustic

Capacity: unlimited

Duration: several hundred milliseconds

Multi-store model, long term: implicit, explicit, procedural, semantic, episodic

Implicit: Not conscious

Explicit: conscious

Procedural: actions

Semantic: facts/ general knowledge

Episodic: significant events

Baddeley and hitch:

Working store model (1974,2000)

Baddeley and hitch: central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop

Central executive: controls the subsections, combining long term memories into an episodic buffer.

Phonological loop: auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad: visual information

Episodic buffer: Segments of consolidated information is formed, creating an episode.

Phonological store and articulatory control process:

phonological= inner ears that stored heard words

Articulatory = repeats heard words in a loo

Chapter 2: memory formation and remembering

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Hippocampus:

Learning and formation of consolidation and declarative memory

Cerebellum:

Formation of procedural memories

Amygdala:

Emotional processes, modulation of fear response and implicit memories

Remembering: recall

Retrieving information from long term with no or limited retrieval cues

Remembering: retrieval cues

Stimulus aiming in retrieving memories

Remembering: recognition

Identity previously stored information by matching current stimuli with stored memories

Relearning:

Reacquiring knowledge or skills that were previously learned but have been forgotten

Craik and Lockharts:

Levels of processing model of memory (1972)

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): maintained rehearsal

Information is repeated to keep it in short term for longer period

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): Shallow processing, strucutal encoding and phonemic encoding

Shallow: Encoding sensory information based on appearances or physical features

Structural: encoding sensory information based on physical features/ appearances

Phonemic: encoding sensory information based on sound or auditory characteristics

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): Deep processing and semantic encoding

Deep: elaborative rehearsal allows for deep processing because information is encoded semantically

Semantic: encoding sensory information based on meaning

Craik and tulving: Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory (1975). What was the aim, method, materials and procedure

Aim: to determine the impact that depth of processing has on the retention of words in long term memory

Method: 24 make and remake students from Toronto university

Materials: A tachistoscope, keyboard, sets of 60 questions and word combinations, and a list of 180 words.

Procedure: Used deception, where participants are told it was perception and reaction speed. Participants put in front of tachistoscope. Participants read a question by the researcher, then 2s later a word appeared in the tachistoscope for 200 milliseconds. Participants clicked yes or no. Did this 60 times. Then 180 list of words appeared with 120 distractor words, they had to circle what they remembered.

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): Rehearsal

Repetition of information to extend the time it held in short term.

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): Maintenance rehearsal:

Simple repetition of information to keep it active in short term

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): Elaborative rehearsal:

Attaches meaning to information

Craik and Lockhart: levels of processing model of memory (1972): Mnemonics:

Memory aids that link information you want to remember with something easier to recall (rhymes, acronyms)

Multi store model: short term encoding, capacity and duration

Encoding: mainly acoustic

Capacity: 5-8 items

Duration: 15-30 seconds

Multi store model: short term encoding, capacity and duration

Encoding: mainly acoustic

Capacity: 5-8 items

Duration: 15-30 seconds

Chapter 3: forgetting and memory loss

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Types of forgetting: retrieval failure

A person is unable to recall information stored in their long term memory because of no retrieval cues.

Types of forgetting: interference

Info stored in long term can’t be retrieved because it’s disrupted by similar information

Interference: proactive interference

Previously stored info disrupts the retrieval of newly stored info

Interference: Retroactive interference

When newly stored info disrupts the retrieval of previously stored info

Types of forgetting: motivated forgetting, psychological repression and thought suppression

Motivated forgetting: When someone unconsciously or consciously try’s to suppress memories or thoughts from conscious awareness to minimise distress

Psychological repression: unconscious

Thought suppression: conscious

Types of forgetting: Decay theory

A forgetting theory describing memories as being composed of traces in the brain that gradually fade over time

Causes and effects of memory loss: What is Chronic traumatic encephalopathy and what are the behaviours and emotions displayed?

Caused by repetitive brain injury that causes problems with cognition and memory.

Behaviours: Apathy, confusion, aggressive or erratic behaviour

Emotions: apathy, emotional instability (mood swings), outbursts of anger

Causes and effects of memory loss: Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome: what it is, behaviours and emotions

a neurological disorder caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1)

Behaviours: apathy, agitation, confabulation(making up stories)

Emotions: apathy, anxiety, frustration

Causes and effects of memory loss: what is Alzheimers disease and what are its behaviours and emotions

The degeneration of neuron’s in regions responsible for cognitive skills and memory. It can be caused by neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques

Behaviours: apathy, aggressive behaviour, lost or disoriented

Emotions: apathy, anxiety, anger and frustration.

Chapter 4: Classical conditioning

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what is classical conditioning:

Form of learning, where existing reflex responses is produced by the repeated pairing of 2 unrelated stimuli

Why is reflex response?

A automatic and involuntary response to stimulus

What is neutral stimulus?

A stimulus that on its own, doesn’t produce a particular response, and a reflex responses

Unconditioned stimulus:

Stimulus with the inherent ability to produce a reflex responses

Conditioned stimulus::

Stimulus that produces a particular response due to learning

Conditioned response:

Reflex response triggered by a previously neutral stimulus as a result of learning (a learned response)

Acquisition:

A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairings with unconditional stimulus

Stimulus generalisation:

A stimulus similar to the combined stimulus that also creates the same response

Stimulus discrimination:

A response that only happens to the combined stimulus and not to others

Extinction

The associations between the conditioned stimulus and conditions response is broken. When the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery:

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response, after the unconditioned stimulus has been absent for some time

Chapter 5: operant conditioning

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Operant conditioning:

A type of learning where consequences of behaviour determines if the behaviour will be repeated

3 phase model: Antecedent

The conditions presented before the behaviour has occurred/ a particular response

3 phase model: Behaviour

Observable actions in response to the antecedent

3 phase model: consequences

The outcome after the behaviour

Reinforcer:

The stimulus that increases the chances of the repeating the behaviour

Punisher:

Stimulus that decreases the chance of repeating the behaviour

What is positive and negative reinforcement

Positive: strengthening a response by adding a stimulus after the response

Negative: strengthening a response by removing a unwanted stimulus

Why is positive and negative punishment?

Positive: Adding a unwanted stimulus to weaken a response

Negative: weakening a response by taking away a wanted stimulus after the response

Schedules of reinforcement: continuous, intermittent, interval and ratio

A response is reinforced after:

Continuous: Every time

Intermittent: Some times

Intervals: scheduled on length of time

Ratio: scheduled on numbers

Schedules of reinforcement: Fixed intervals (strength and weakness)

Reinforcement given at fixed intervals

Strength: its predictable

Limitations: post-reinforcement pause (a break after reinforcement has occurred)

Schedules of reinforcement: Variable intervals: strengths and limitations:

Reinforcement given at irregular intervals

Strengths: produces highest responses

Limitations: resistance to extinction

Schedules of reinforcement: Fixed ratio: strengths and weakness

Reinforcement given after a set number of response

Strengths: predictable reinforcement patterns, sustainable for long term behaviour

Limitations: slowest acquisition rate, fastest extinction rate

Schedules of reinforcement: Variable ratio: strengths and limitations:

Reinforcement given after unpredictable number of response

Strengths: high response rate, resistance to extinction

Limitations: high potential for compulsive or excess behaviour

Thorndike:

Puzzle box experiment and the law of effect (1898)

Thorndike Puzzle box experiment and the law of effect (1898): method, materials, design, procedure.

Subjects = 13 cats

Materials= puzzles boxes, food for cats and a clock.

Design = Iv: the consequences of the cats responses, dv: length of time

Procedure= hungry cats placed in box, through trial and error escaped by pulling a leaver.

Skinner

Box experiments (1938)

Skinner box experiments (1938): methods, materials, design, procedure

Subjects= white rats

Materials= experimental box with lever, food stray and water dispenser, food pellets supplied as a reinforcement

Design= Iv: schedule of reinforcement. Dv: response rate

Procedure= hungry rats were placed in box, extraneous variables were controlled by keeping the dox dark and sound proof, used Fixed variable, and fixed ratio. Extinction, occurred when the lever pressing was no longer followed by food reinforcement.

Chapter 6: Social learning theory and behaviour modification

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Bandura’s:

Banduras social learning theory (1977)

Banduras social learning theory (1977): observational learning

Learning that occurs by watching a model, notice their behaviours and consequences, and then decided whether to follow.

Banduras social learning theory (1977). Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

Attention: models needs to be interesting enough to pay attention

Retention: learner needs to be able to remember the models observed behaviour.

Reproduction: learner needs to have the physics, and cognitive abilities to reproduce the behaviour.

Motivation: leaner needs an incentive or reason to repeat the modelled behaviour

Banduras social learning theory (1977): vicarious reinforcement:

A form of observational learning in which observed consequences of a models actions can influence the learners behaviour.

Dandura, Ross and Ross experiment:

Bobo doll experiment (1961)

bandura, Ross and Ross bobo doll experiment (1961): methods, materials, design, procedure.

Methods: 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-4

Materials: bobo doll, craft items, behaviour checklist, a clock.

Design: Iv = whether children were exposed to aggressive or passive behaviour

Procedure: randomly allocated into three groups, the aggressive model, passive model and control group. Control group not partake in first stage, where the adult models were. Adults would hit or not hit a bobo doll and say nasty things, then the children partook in the same thing. Children were also riled up earlier to get them angry.

Learning theories and behaviour modification: behaviour modification, systematic desensitisation and token economies

Behaviour modification: change unwanted behaviours.

Systematic desensitisation: form of therapy, based on classical conditioning through gradual exposure to the feared stimuli

Token economy: Behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning, which a symbolic reinforcer is used to encourage a particular behaviour.

Token economies: Secondary and primary reinforcer

Secondary: symbolic tokens used to motivate desired behaviours

Primary: A tangible reward

Chapter 7: Sources of motivation and self-determination theory

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Sources of motivation: the 4 sources of motivation

Physiological: physical and essential needs

Cognitive: originates within the mind including thought processes.

Emotional: Emotions

Social: Relationships

Deci and Ryan’s: what is their theory and what year was it made?

Self determination theory (2000)

What are the 3 psychological needs for motivation

Autonomy: making your own choices

Competence: feeling capable of achievement

Relatedness: connecting with others

Self-determination continuum: what is a-motivation and what is the regulatory style?

A motivation: lack of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Regulatory style: Non-regulation.

Self determination continuum: what is extrinsic motivation and what are the 4 regulatory styles?

Extrinsic motivation: When someone engages in an activity to achieve a seperate outcome or reward.

Regulatory styles:

External: For outside rewards and punishments

Internal: Internally controlled rewards and punishments

Identified: conscious valuing due to personal importance

Intergrated: value recognition and integration

Self-determination continuum: What is intrinsic motivation and what is the regulatory style

Intrinsic movtation: driven by satisfaction and enjoyment of the behaviour itself.

Regulatory style: Intrinsic regulation, based on interest and enjoyment

Chapter 8: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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What was Maslows theory and when was it created and restructured?

Maslows hierarchy of needs (1954 and 1970)

what did Maslow analyse to help construct the hierarchy of needs?

60 historical figures based on their personality structures.

What are deficiency needs and growth needs?

Deficiency needs: Basic needs people are motivated to fulfill due to their absence

Growth needs: Needs that once met, continue act as motivators.

What are the 5 stages of the 1954 model of the hierarchy of needs?

1: physiological needs

2: safety needs

3: love and belongingness

4: esteem needs

5: self-actualisation

What stages were added and what stage in the 1970 model of the hierarchy of needs?

Level 5: cognitive needs

6: aesthetic needs

8: transcendence needs

Chapter 9: model of wellbeing

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Who made the model of subjective wellbeing and when was it created?

Diener in 1984

What is subjective wellbeing?

The mixture of negative and positive measures and the overall emotional and cognitive assessment of life

What is life satisfaction and affective balance?

Life satisfaction: the overall assessment a person make of their life and their own experiences

Affective balance: The emotional component of subjective wellbeing, made up of positive and negative affect

What is positive affect and negative affect

Positive affect: the experience of pleasant emotions

Negative affect: the experience of distressing emotions