Jewish history final exam

Almohad Dynasty:

a Berber Muslim empire that ruled North Africa and parts of Islamic Spain (al-Andalus) from around 1130 to 1269. They were known for their strict interpretation of Islam, more rigid than their predecessors, the Almoravids.

Under Almohad rule, religious minorities — especially Jews and Christians — faced harsh conditions. Unlike earlier Muslim rulers who offered dhimmi status , the Almohads rejected this tolerance. They forced non-Muslims to convert to Islam, flee, or face death.

Abraham Cardoso

A treasure trove of around 300,000 Jewish manuscript fragments discovered in a Cairo synagogue. It contains religious texts, letters, contracts, and daily records, offering deep insights into medieval Jewish life.

Conversos:

Jews in Spain and Portugal who converted to Christianity (often forcibly) during the Inquisition, but many secretly continued Jewish practices. Also called "New Christians" or "crypto-Jews."

Dolce of Worms:

A Jewish martyr who lived in the German city of Worms during the 12th century. She is known for being the wife of Rabbi Eleazar of Worms, a major figure in the Hasidei Ashkenaz. In 1196, Dolce and her two daughters were brutally murdered during an attack by local Christian crusaders or townspeople. This tragic event happened during a time when Jews in the Rhineland were frequently targeted by mobs, especially during or after the Crusades.

Crusade Chronicles:

Christian narratives of the Crusades, which often include brutal accounts of Jewish massacres, particularly during the First Crusade (1096) in places like Worms and Mainz.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Catholic Monarchs of Spain who unified the country and issued the 1492 Edict of Expulsion, forcing Jews to convert or leave.

Hugh of St. Victor:

A 12th-century Christian scholar who contributed to Christian theology and expressed typical medieval attitudes toward Jews, often portraying them as spiritually blind.

Jacob al-Qirqisani: A 10th-century Karaite scholar who rejected rabbinic authority and promoted a purely scriptural form of Judaism.

Guide of the Perplexed

A philosophical and theological text by Maimonides that explores the relationship between reason, science, and religious belief, written for educated Jews struggling with faith.

Hugh of St. Victor:

A 12th-century Christian scholar who contributed to Christian theology and expressed typical medieval attitudes toward Jews, often portraying them as spiritually blind.

Jacob al-Qirqisani: .

A 10th-century Karaite scholar who rejected rabbinic authority He was one of the most important thinkers of the Karaite movement, a Jewish sect that rejected Talmudic authority and emphasized strict reliance on the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) alone and promoted a purely scriptural form of Judaism

Jewish Town Charters:

Legal documents that granted Jews permission to live in and operate within certain towns, detailing their rights and obligations, often including tax payments and legal autonomy

Moses Maimonides:

A towering Jewish philosopher, legal scholar, and physician of the 12th century. He wrote the Mishneh Torah and Guide of the Perplexed, shaping Jewish law and thought for centuries.

Nathan of Gaza

: A Jewish mystic who “discovered” and promoted Shabbatai Zvi as the Messiah in the 1660s, fueling the most widespread messianic movement in Jewish history.

Obadiah the Proselyte:

A Norman-Italian nobleman who converted to Judaism in the 12th century and left behind rare musical notations and an autobiography.

Pablo Christiani:

A 13th-century Jewish convert to Christianity who participated in anti-Jewish debates (like the Disputation of Barcelona) and tried to convert Jews.

olemics (between Jews and Christians):

Intense debates or writings where each side tried to prove its religion was correct and the other false. These often reinforced prejudice and led to persecution.

Pope Urban II:

The pope who launched the First Crusade in 1095. While his goal was to reclaim the Holy Land, Crusaders also massacred many Jews along the way.

Qaraites:

A Jewish sect that emerged in the 8th–9th century, rejecting the authority of the Talmud and rabbinic interpretation, relying solely on the Hebrew Bible.

Rabbanites:

Mainstream Jewish group that followed rabbinic tradition, the Talmud, and oral law — in contrast to the Karaites.

Saadia Gaon:

A 10th-century rabbi and philosopher who defended rabbinic Judaism and translated the Bible into Arabic. He also debated Karaites and wrote about Jewish belief and reason.

Shabbatai Zvi:

A 17th-century mystic who claimed to be the Jewish Messiah, attracting massive followings. His eventual conversion to Islam devastated his followers and reshaped Jewish messianic thinking.

Solomon Alami:

A 15th-century Jewish moralist whose ethical writings reflected on the suffering of Jews in Christian lands and the need for repentance.

Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi):

An 11th-century French rabbi whose commentaries on the Torah and Talmud became foundational in Jewish study.

Spanish Hebrew poetry:

Flourished during the Golden Age of Jewish culture in Muslim Spain (10th–12th centuries). These poems often balanced religious themes with beauty and secular ideas

Spanish Inquisition:

A Catholic tribunal established in 1478 to root out heresy, especially among conversos suspected of secretly practicing Judaism. It led to torture, trials, and executions.

Torquemada:

The first Grand Inquisitor of Spain and the architect of the Spanish Inquisition, known for his harsh treatment of Jews and conversos.

Tosafists:

Medieval scholars (mostly in France and Germany) who wrote critical commentaries and glosses on the Talmud, often expanding or arguing with Rashi’s interpretations.

Uriel Acosta:

A 17th-century Portuguese Jewish thinker who criticized rabbinic Judaism and was excommunicated. His tragic life inspired later Enlightenment thinkers.

Witness doctrine:

A Christian theological idea that Jews must remain dispersed and humiliated as “witnesses” to the truth of Christianity.

Adrienne Rich:

A 20th-century Jewish-American poet who used her writing to explore identity, feminism, Jewishness, and activism.

Autoemancipation

A 19th-century pamphlet by Leon Pinsker arguing that Jews must free themselves through national self-determination — a foundational Zionist text

Balfour Declaration:

A 1917 statement from the British government supporting the creation of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

Brit Shalom:

A Zionist group (1920s–30s) that promoted peaceful coexistence and binationalism between Jews and Arabs in Mandatory Palestine.

David Ben Gurion:

Leader of the Zionist movement and Israel’s first Prime Minister (1948), instrumental in declaring Israel’s independence.

Emancipation:

The legal granting of rights to Jews in Europe, especially during and after the Enlightenment and French Revolution.

Emma Lazarus

A Jewish-American poet whose famous poem “The New Colossus” (on the Statue of Liberty) welcomed immigrants to America.

Enlightenment

: A European intellectual movement promoting reason and equality. It influenced Jewish thinkers like Moses Mendelssohn and supported Jewish emancipation.

Evian Conference:

A 1938 international meeting where countries failed to accept significant numbers of Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi Germany.

French Revolution:

It promoted liberty and equality, and in 1791 France became the first country to grant full citizenship to Jews.

Hamburg Temple:

The first Reform synagogue (opened in 1818) in Germany. It introduced changes like sermons in German and organ music, sparking controversy.

Israel ben Eliezer (Ba‘al Shem Tov / BeSHT):

The 18th-century founder of Hasidic Judaism, emphasizing mysticism, emotion, and God’s presence in everyday life.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor:

Issued the Edict of Tolerance (1782), granting Jews more rights while encouraging assimilation.

Kristallnacht:

A 1938 pogrom in Nazi Germany where Jewish synagogues, businesses, and homes were attacked and destroyed — a prelude to the Holocaust.

Maurycy Gottlieb: .

A 19th-century Polish-Jewish artist known for paintings that blended Jewish themes with European Romanticism

MS St. Louis:

A ship carrying over 900 Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. Denied entry to Cuba, the U.S., and Canada, many passengers later died in the Holocaust.

Moses Mendelssohn:

An Enlightenment philosopher who encouraged Jews to engage with European culture while maintaining Jewish identity.

Moses Sofer (Chatam Sofer):

A staunch defender of Orthodox Judaism who resisted modern changes and Reform movements in the 19th century.

“Muscle-Jews” (Max Nordau):

A Zionist idea advocating for physically strong Jews to break stereotypes of Jewish weakness and reclaim masculinity.

Nathan the Wise:

An Enlightenment-era play by Gotthold Lessing promoting interfaith tolerance through the story of a wise Jewish character.

Partition Plan of 1947:

A UN plan to divide British Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. It was accepted by Jews but rejected by Arabs, leading to conflict.

Reform Judaism:

A liberal Jewish movement beginning in 19th-century Germany, emphasizing ethics, modernity, and flexible interpretation of Jewish law.

“Science of Judaism” (Wissenschaft des Judentums):

A scholarly movement that studied Judaism academically, treating Jewish texts and history with critical methods.

Sobibor:

A Nazi extermination camp in Poland. It was the site of a rare prisoner revolt in 1943, after which the camp was dismantled.

Tel Aviv:

Founded in 1909, it became a center of Jewish culture and innovation, eventually one of Israel’s largest cities.

The Jazz Singer:

The first feature film with synchronized dialogue (1927), telling the story of a Jewish man torn between tradition and showbiz.

“The Jewish Question”:

A term used in 19th- and 20th-century Europe referring to the “problem” of Jewish integration; later used by Nazis in genocidal terms.

Theodore Herzl:

The father of modern political Zionism, advocating for a Jewish state as a solution to antisemitism.