Last Linguistics

Define phonemes

Phonemes are speech sounds that serve to distinguish words in a language 

Define allophones

Allophones are the different actual physical realizations of that phoneme in specific context {for example: p vs p^h)

Explain phonemicization and provide examples.

The knowledge and techniques used to determine and establish the phonemic system of a language

• Minimal pairs

• Near-minimal pairs

• Complementary distribution

Define minimal pairs

Minimal pairs are two different words that differ in exactly one sound in the same location

Define near-minimal pairs

Near minimal pairs are pairs that would be minimal except for some evidently irrelevant difference

Explain complementary distribution

Complementary distribution describes a relationship between two sounds (or segments) where one sound never occurs in the phonetic environment where the other sound occurs. complementary distribution helps to demonstrate that differences between sounds are merely context-driven variations of the same underlying sound unit.

/n/ dentalization

The rule states that the phoneme /n/ is dentalized when it precedes the dental fricative [θ]

/n/ → [n̪] / __ θ

Tapping

An alveolar stop is realized as [ɾ] when preceded by a vowel

and followed by a stressless vowel.

[+anterior, -continuant, -delayed release] → [ɾ] / [+syllabic] __ [+syllabic, -stress]

/l/ dentalization

/l/ is rendered as velarized and dental before [θ]

/l/ --> [+dorsal, +high, -low, -front, +back, +anterior, +distributed] / __ θ

/l/ partial devoicing

Partially devoice /l/ after a voiceless consonant

/l/ --> [l̥͡l] / [-syllabic, -voice] __

/l/ velarization

/l/ becomes velarized at word-final position

/l/ --> [+dorsal, +high, -low, -front, +back] / __ #

/æ/ diphthongization

/æ/ may be realized as [ɛə] when it precedes /n/

/æ/ → [ɛə] / ___ n

Vowel nasalization

A vowel is realized as nasalized when it precedes a nasal consonant

[+syllabic] → [–approximant, +sonorant] / ___ [–approximant, +sonorant, –syllabic]

Preglottalization

A voiceless stop is preglottalized in the coda after a voiced sound

[-continuant, -delayed release, -voice] → [+constricted glottis] / __ _ C0]σ

Aspiration

Voiceless stops are aspirated when preceding a stressed V and are not preceded by /s/

[-continuant, -delayed release, -voice] → [+spread glottis] / __ [+syllabic, +stress] (X ≠ s)

Post-nasal /t/ deletion

/t/ is deleted when it occurs between /n/ and a stressless V

t/ → ∅ / n __ [+syllabic, -stress]

/aɪ/ raising

/aɪ/ is realized as [ʌɪ] when preceding a voiceless consonant

/aɪ/ → [ʌɪ] / __ [-syllabic, -voice]

/ʔ/ epenthesis (British English)

A glottal stop is inserted between /ə/ and a stressed vowel

∅ → [ʔ]/ ə __ [+syllabic, +stress]

/ɹ/ epenthesis (British English)

/ɹ/ is inserted between /ə/ and a stressless vowel

∅ → [ɹ]/ ə __ [+syllabic, -stress]

Stop insertion

After a nasal, a voiceless stop with the same place of articulation as the

nasal is inserted when followed by a voiceless fricative

∅ → [-continuant, -delayed release, -voice, place_i] / [+sonorant, -approximant, place_i] _ [+continuant, +delayed release, -voice]

/eɪ/ Shortening

The phoneme /eɪ/ is realized as extra short when a voiceless consonant follows

/ei/ -> [ĕi] / __ [-voice, -syllabic]

High vowel devoicing (Japanese)

high tense vowels become devoiced at word final position following a voiceless consonant

/+syllabic, +high, +tense/ → [-voice] / [-sonorant, -voice] __ #

/h/ → [ç]

/h/ is realized as the palatal fricative [ç] when it immediately precedes a high front tense vowel

/h/ → [ç]/ _ [+high, +front, +tense]

/h/ → [ɸ]

/h/ is realized as the bilabial fricative [ɸ] when it immediately precedes a high back vowel

/h/ → [ɸ] /  _ [+high, +back, +tense]

/t/ → [t͡s]

/t/ is realized as [t͡s] when followed by [u]

/t/ → [t͡s] / __ [u]

Provide a few arguments supporting the claim that humans produce/perceive language in terms of phonemes

Argument 1: Audibility of the fine differences  - Humans can hear extremely subtle acoustic differences between sounds, yet we categorize them as the same phoneme unless those differences change meaning

Argument 2: The notion of “same sound” - Speakers intuitively judge different allophones as “the same sound,” demonstrating that mental representations are organized around phonemes rather than their varying phonetic realizations

Argument 3: Transfer - When learning a new language, speakers often substitute unfamiliar sounds with the closest phonemes from their native language, indicating that speech production and perception rely on preexisting phonemic categories.

Explain the meaning of transfer in the context of the psychological reality of phonemes

Transfer, in the context of the psychological reality of phonemes, refers to the unconscious application of the phonological knowledge and rules of a speaker's first language (L1) when attempting to produce or perceive a second language (L2)

Define phonotactics.

phonotactics is the legal sequencing of speech sounds

Explain why /h/ and /ŋ/ in English are in complementary distribution but not allophones of the same phoneme.

The data shows that the occurrence of [h] and [ŋ] in English does not overlap. [h] primarily appears word-initially or syllabically (e.g., hill ['hɪl], high ['haɪ], ahead [əˈhɛd]). In contrast, [ŋ] appears in coda positions, typically following a vowel and preceding the end of a syllable (e.g., sing ['sɪŋ], running ['lʌnɪŋ]). However, they are phonetically “very” different.

Explain the difficulty of phonemicization involving contour segments

The difficulty of phonemicization concerning contour segments (such as affricates like [tɕ͡]) lies in determining whether these complex sounds should be analyzed as a single phoneme or as a sequence of two separate phonemes. This distinction is critical because analyzing a contour segment as a single unit may be necessary to conform to a language's rules, such as avoiding the illegal phonotactic structure of consonant clusters (*CC) found generally in Japanese. However, the correct interpretation is not always obvious, requiring linguists to consider how phonological phenomena and morphological/syntactic structures apply to the words in question

Explain why a phonemic analysis must target a specific stratum of the vocabulary.

A phonemic analysis must target a specific stratum of the vocabulary because the phonological rules governing a language often apply differently based on the origin of the words being studied. Specifically, languages frequently borrow sounds and structures via loanwords, which can expand the phonemic inventory but may resist native phonological processes. For example, the phenomenon of Rendaku (sequential voicing) in Japanese typically applies only to Yamato words and not to words belonging to the Sino-Japanese stratum or loanwords,,,. Therefore, a linguist must isolate a particular stratum to accurately establish the phonemic system and its corresponding rules, as failing to do so may lead to an incorrect analysis of allophonic variation versus true phonemic contrast.

Define contextually limited contrast

In a contextually limited contrast, the ability of two sounds to distinguish words (minimal pairs) is not universally available across all positions within words, but rather restricted to specific phonetic environments

What are phonological doublets

A phonological doublet is defined as a case where one word happens to have two different phonemic forms. For example: envelope has two phonemic forms: /'ɛnvə,loup/ and /'anve,loup/

What is free variation?

Free variation is a concept in phonology that describes instances where allophonic variations of a phoneme are determined by optional phonological rules (ex. tapping, /æ/ diphthongization)

Is free variation more common in casual or formal speech? In fast or slow speech?

They more likely apply in casual/rapid speed

Identify acoustic differences between sonorants and obstruents.

Obstruents involve more obstruction of the vocal tract, which leads to more pressure in the oral cavity and are classified as segments with the most air obstruction in the Sonority Hierarchy therefore less loud

Sonorants involve less obstruction of the vocal tract, resulting in less pressure in the oral cavity and are generally more sonorous (louder) than obstruents in the Sonority Hierarchy as they have more acoustic energy

Explain sonority sequencing in syllables.

Vowels→Glides→Liquids→Nasals→Obstruents (more to less sonorous)

nucleus → most sonorous

Closer to the edge → less sonorous

What impressions do obstruents vs. sonorants evoke, and why?

Obstruents evoke a more angular impression - seen as more masculine

• Male names with more obstruents are perceived more attractive

Sonorants have less angles acoustically evoking a more feminine shape

• Female names with more sonorants are perceived more attractive

What impressions do voiced vs. voiceless obstruents evoke, and why?

The more voiced obstruents, the stronger/larger due to increase in the volume of vocal tract

Explain why phonological representations use features instead of lists of segments

Phonological representations use features instead of merely listing segments (like /p/, /θ/, /d͡ʒ/, /ŋ/, etc.) because relying solely on individual segments is not sufficient to capture the essential properties and systematic behavior of sounds in a language. Features are necessary for two primary reasons related to how phonology operates: capturing natural classes and overcoming the limitations of phonetic labels

Explain why complementary distribution does not always imply a single phoneme

If the two sounds are complementary but are deemed phonetically "very" different, they should not be analyzed as allophones of the same phoneme. In English, for instance, the sounds /h/ (a glottal fricative) and /ŋ/ (a velar nasal) are in complementary distribution, but they are too dissimilar in terms of articulation to be grouped under one phoneme.

Define alternation

Alternation is defined as a phenomenon where a morpheme appears in different forms in different contexts. It emerges when underlying forms (morphemes stored in the lexicon) are subjected to various phonological rules determined by their phonetic and structural context, such as when affixes are attached during word derivation

Define allomorphs and explain how they differ from allophones.

Allomorphs are the different surface forms or phonetic realizations that a single morpheme takes when it appears in different contexts

Allomorphs are morphological while allophones are phonological

Explain where alternations often occur in morphemes and why.

Alternation usually affects segments located at the edges of words or morphemes

Define neutralization

Neutralization refers to the linguistic phenomenon where two or more distinct phonemes lose their contrast and are realized as the identical phonetic realization in a particular environment. This results in a lack of contrast in that specific context

distinguish between complete and incomplete neutralization

Complete Neutralization occurs when two or more different phonemes result in an identical phonetic realization in a particular environment, leading to a lack of contrast in that context

Incomplete Neutralization occurs when different phonemes result in an almost identical phonetic realization, leading to an almost lack of contrast in a particular environment. The key distinction is that a subtle, non-distinctive phonetic difference is retained.

Explain the McGurk Effect and its linguistic implications

The McGurk Effect is a perceptual phenomenon where conflicting auditory and visual speech cues cause listeners to hear a completely different third sound (e.g., hearing “da” when seeing /ga/ but hearing /ba/). It shows that speech perception is multimodal, relying not only on what we hear but also on what we see. Linguistically, it demonstrates that the brain integrates visual articulatory information into phoneme perception, revealing that speech processing is not purely auditory.

Determine correct phonological rule orderings and whether they are feeding or bleeding

A feeding order occurs when Rule A creates new environments that allow Rule B to apply.

A bleeding order occurs when Rule A destroys the environment needed for Rule B to apply.

Explain why surface minimal pairs like [ab] and [ac], where a, b, and c represent any segments, may not indicate different phonemes

It may not indicate that the differing sounds (b and c) are distinct phonemes due to a phenomenon called Displaced Contrast. In cases of Displaced Contrast, the surface phonetic difference (the minimal pair) actually results from an allophonic variation triggered by different underlying phonemes

Define displaced contrast

Displaced Contrast which says that the underlying contrast of phonemes is displaced to surface another (allophonic) contrast.

The surface phonetic contrast between [ɹʌɪtɪŋ] (writing) and [ɹaɪɾɪŋ] (riding) involves allophonic variation between [ʌɪ] and [aɪ]. This surface difference between [ʌɪ] and [aɪ] is caused by the underlying phonemic difference between /t/ and /d/ (which neutralize to [ɾ] in this environment)

Explain why certain sound sequences are unacceptable in English (sonority hierarchy)

Explain a few differences between onsets and codas

onset (consonants before the nucleus) and the coda (consonants after the nucleus) within a syllable

The onset is often obligatory or preferred in a syllable structure and is never forbidden across languages while The coda is often optional and, in many languages, can be forbidden entirely

The onset is the primary locus of phonemic contrast. This means that distinct phonemes are typically distinguished when they appear in the onset position while the coda is the primary locus of neutralization. This means that phonemic contrasts often disappear in this position, resulting in different underlying phonemes having the same phonetic realization

Segments in the onset are typically articulated more forcefully, a phenomenon known as fortition. English aspiration (e.g., initial voiceless stops) is an example of fortition in the onset. Segments in the coda are articulated less forcefully (a phenomenon known as lenition). An example is the realization of stops as unreleased in the English coda

Support the claim that Japanese is mora-based and English is syllable-based, using evidence from: speech errors

Syllables:

• No exchange between different syllable parts.

• No errors in just one part of a diphthong.

Mora:

• A vowel of long vowels can change. 

• Vowels can replace consonants, and vice versa. 

• A consonant of geminates can change.

Support the claim that Japanese is mora-based and English is syllable-based, using evidence from: stuttering 

English speakers also tend to stutter by repeating elements at the beginning of the syllable.

when Japanese speakers stutter, they predominantly repeat moras, with 84% repeating the CV mora

Support the claim that Japanese is mora-based and English is syllable-based, using evidence from: blending

The rule for these common English blends is that they are created by taking the onset of the first syllable of the first word and the coda of the last syllable of the second word, with the nucleus being the point where the words are blended.

The resulting blend is defined by the sequence of moras (m1​...mn ​− mn+1​...mz2​) rather than syllables (σ). The blend badopon is explicitly noted as not based on syllables but moras (2μ/2σ + 2μ/1σ)

Identify where speech errors commonly occur (word-initial, medial, final)

Speech errors in English most commonly occur in the word-initial position of a word or syllable.

Explain why syllables matter in Japanese phonology (along with moras), using:  clipping

Clipping, require the consideration of both moras and syllables simultaneously.

• The clipped words must have two or more syllables.

• ‘1-mora syllable + 2-mora syllable’ is not acceptable.

Explain why syllables matter in Japanese phonology (along with moras), using: vowel fusion

In casual Japanese speech, when two adjacent vowels merge (vowel fusion), the resulting sound change adheres to the constraint of maintaining the original syllable structure

Explain a few differences between phrases and compounds.

1) Accent Pattern:

• Phrases generally maintain the independent stress of their components, such as in black BOARD

• Compounds often have a characteristic accent pattern where the stress falls on the first element (e.g., BLACKboard)

2) Rendaku

Rendaku (sequential voicing, where the first consonant of the second word becomes voiced) happens only to compounds

3) Inflection Insertion

A phrase allows internal inflectional elements, but a compound generally does not

4) Adverb Insertion

The components of a compound cannot be easily separated or modified by adverbs but phrases can be modified internally by adverbs

5) Semantic Differences

• Phrases have a compositional meaning derived directly from the meaning of their individual parts (e.g., red phone means a phone that is red)

• Compounds may have an idiosyncratic meaning that is not predictable from their parts (e.g., aka denwa literally 'red phone' but meaning 'public phone'). Examples in English include blackboard and White House.
  

Define rendaku

Rendaku, also known as sequential voicing, is a phonological phenomenon in Japanese that describes a specific type of sound change that occurs when two words are combined to form a compound word. The phenomenon is characterized by the first consonant of the second word becoming voiced. This process is considered a form of voicing assimilation.

Identify whether a compound undergoes rendaku

• Rendaku typically applies only to Yamato (native Japanese) words, and is much less likely to apply to Sino-Japanese words or loanwords

• Lyman’s Law: Rendaku generally does not occur if the second word in the compound already contains a voiced obstruent

• Compound Type: It usually does not occur in Dvanda compounds (those with conjunctive meanings, like 'yamakawa - mountain and river')

Explain which is more productive: derivational or inflectional morphology.

inflectional morphology is generally more productive than derivational morphology.

• Inflectional Morphemes (More Productive): These morphemes can attach to virtually all instances of a category. For example, the inflectional past tense suffix -ed can attach to verbs such as play (play-ed) and study (studi-ed),.

• Derivational Morphemes (Less Productive): These morphemes can only attach to a restricted set of morphemes. For instance, the derivational suffix -er (to denote an agent) can attach to play (play-er), but it cannot attach to study (leading to the ungrammatical form *study-er) in the same way.
  

Affix: Another aspects of bound morphemes

prefix: Precede a base.

• e.g., unhappy

➢ suffix: Follow a base

• e.g., player

➢ infix: Appear within a base

• e.g., fan-bloody-tastic

➢ circumfix: Appear around a base

• e.g., o-tabe-ninar (tabe ‘to eat’ + o-ninar = honorific form of ‘to eat’)

-able affixation

Verb + əbəl →Adjective
The derived word means "able to be Verbed

-ity affixation

Adj + ɪti → N
Adj + ɪti means “the quality of being Adj”

un- affixation

ʌn + Adj → Ad
ʌn + Adj means “not Adj”

-ation affixation

Verb + ˈeɪʃən → Noun

• Meaning “the process or product of Verbing”

Past tense formation

X → Xd when {Verb, +past}

Plural formation

X → Xz when {Noun, +plural}

-ya affixation (Japanese)

Noun + jɑ → Noun

Meaning: “shop selling Noun”