KIN 312 Exam #3
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105 Terms
What are the two models that are used to describe the stages of learning?
The Fitts and Posner 3-Stage Model
The Gentile 2-Stage Model
What are the 3 stages of the Fitts & Posner model of stages of learning? List them sequentially.
Cognitive Phase
Associative Phase
Autonomous Phase
The first stage of the Fitts & Posner model. Involved in cognitive and movement problem-solving activity. Questions concern on what to do to achieve goal of the skill. Movements demand large amounts of attention.
The Cognitive Stage
At this stage of the Fitts & Posner model, the person is aware of making errors, but doesn’t know how to correct them.
The Cognitive Stage
At this stage of the Fitts & Posner model, there is high amounts of trial-to-trial variability (poor consistency). Errors tend to be big and are frequent as well.
The Cognitive Stage
“In the ballpark” movement pattern is characteristic of this stage of the Fitts & Posner model.
The Cognitive Stage
During this stage of the Fitts & Posner model…
The performer associates environmental cues with the required movements.
Has a reduced attention demand at movement level,
An increased capability to perform tasks simultaneously.
An increased capability to detect errors.
The Associative Stage
Refinement of movement patterns, having smaller and fewer errors, and a decreased trial-to-trial variability are performance characteristics of this Fitts and Posner model stage.
The Associative Stage
At this stage of the Fitts & Posner model has…
Very little (if any) attention demanded at the movement level.
The person fully capable of performing simultaneous tasks.
The person fully capability of detecting and correcting errors.
The Autonomous Stage
Consistent trial-to-trial movement patterns and few and small errors is characteristic of what stage of the Fitt & Posner model?
The Autonomous Stage
What is the second stage of the Fitt & Posner model?
The Associative Stage
What is the first stage of the Fitt & Posner model?
The Cognitive Stage
What is the third stage of the Fitt & Posner model?
The Autonomous Stage
What are the 2 stages of the Gentile model?
The Initial Stage
The Later Stages
Developing movement patterns that allow some degree of success at achieving an action goal, movement lacking efficiency, and starting to discriminate regulatory and non-regulatory environmental conditions are all characteristic of what stage of the Gentile model?
The Initial Stage
This stage of the Gentile model is similar to the Cognitive Stage from the Fitt and Posner model.
The Initial Stage
This stage of the Gentile model has a person emphasizing…
Developing the capability to adapt movement patterns to situation demands.
Becoming more consistent at achieving the action goal.
Refining movement pattern developed in the initial stage.
Increasing the economy of effort while performing the skill.
Achieving specific goals for performing closed and open motor skills.
The Later Stages
During the later stages of the Gentile model, for what type of motor skill do we have the goals of fixation, increasing the consistency of producing the same movement pattern every time, and increasing the capability to adapt to non-regulatory conditions (anxiety, wind, noise, fatigue).
Closed Motor Skill
During the later stages of the Gentile model, for what type of motor skill do we have the goals of diversification, increasing capability to adapt to changing spatial/temporal regulatory conditions, and increasing the capability to modify movement characteristics of movement patterns as needed.
Open Motor Skill
What are the 7 concepts that are responsible for the changes in learning?
Rate of Improvement
Body & Limb Segment Coordination
Muscle Activation During Performance
Energy Cost
Kinematic Goal Achievement
Visual Attention
Demand for Conscious Attention
What is the Power Law of Practice?
The time it takes to perform a task decreases with the number of times the task is performed.
What do people do as they improve performance so that the Power Law characterizes the rate of improvement?
It changes their emphasis on the types of performance errors they try to correct. They will go from trying to correct gross, movement, and then accuracy/consistency errors as they improve.
What did the Langley Study of Beginning Bowlers assess?
What students were trying to correct at the beginning, middle, and end of a bowling class.
Progresses from “freezing to freeing” degrees of freedom with learning.
Body & Limb Segment Coordination
Initial control strategy, person performs skill by moving some joints as only 1 joint. Eventually develops a functional synergy of those joints.
Freezing to freeing degrees of freedom .
Concept characterized by a decrease in # of muscles activated and the development of sequences of muscle activation with learning.
Muscle Activation During Performance
Concept characterized by increase in efficient use of energy with learning.
Energy cost
Energy use involves….
Physiological (O2, calories)
Mechanical (=work rate/metabolic rate)
Concept characterized by progressing from spatial to temporal goals with learning.
Kinematics Goal Achievement
Concept characterized by erratic to more specific visual search, the development of faster visual focus on correct cues, and an increased capability to shift attention. This all occurs with increased learning.
Visual Attention
Demand for conscious attention decreases due to…
chunking.
Concept characterized by “chunking.”
Demand for Conscious Attention
There is _____ transfer of capabilities from expertise domain to another in which the expert has no experience.
little
What is similar about experts of all different domains?
A lot of deliberate practice is required.
True or False: Expertise is domain specific.
True
If ‘experts’ perform the skills “automatically” why do they not perform perfectly all the time?
A change in environment and also people are inherently variable with movement in order to be healthy.
Can an expert lose the capability to perform like an expert?
Unknown, but likely multiple things contribute to a loss in expertise.
What is Tulving’s (1985) definition of memory?
The capacity that permits organisms to benefit from their past experiences.
What are the 2 functional components of memory Baddeley proposed?
Working Memory (Short-Term)
Long-term Memory
Incorporates sensory, perceptual, attentional, and short-term memory processes. A place where information is stored for a short time.
Working Memory
Working memory plays a critical role in…
Decision-making
Problem Solving
Movement Production and Evaluation
Long-term memory function (learning)
Deals with the tasks that occur “right now.”
Working Memory
True or False: Elements in working memory get moved to long-term memory.
True
Refers to how long working memory can hold/store information.
Duration
What was the found max duration for both cognitive and motor skills?
20-30 seconds
Refers to how much information we can store.
Capacity
We can store up to _____ items in working memory.
7 (+-2)
How can we expand capacity of our working memory?
Chunking
A more permanent storage space than working memory. Contains knowledge about past events and knowledge about how the world works.
Long-Term Memory
Duration is relatively permanent.
Long-Term Memory
True or False: We lose information in our long-term memory.
False: We don’t lose information, we just have a problem locating it.
Capacity is relatively unlimited.
Long-Term Memory
What are the 3 types of information stored in long-term memory?
Procedural Memories
Episodic Memories
Semantic Memories
Critical to motor skills. Can only be acquired through physical practice. Usually performers cannot describe how they do it.
Procedural Memories
Memories that tell us how to do something.
Procedural Memories
Personally experienced events and where they occur in time.
Episodic Memories
What type of information is this an example of: “I remember when I missed that putt left, I won’t do that again.”
Episodic Memories
Allows you to compare what you did in the past to what you are doing now; compare performances.
Episodic Memories
Type of memory that is procedural knowledge.
Procedural Memories
Types of memory that is declarative knowledge.
Episodic Memories & Semantic Memories
Types of memory that tell us what to do.
Episodic Memories & Semantic Memories
Conceptual knowledge. General knowledge about the world and how it has developed from our personal point of view. Factual information such as E=mc².
Semantic Memories
What are the 3 causes of forgetting?
Trace Decay
Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference
When forgetting occurs due to the passing of time.
Trace Decay
Activities that occur prior to performance that negatively affects memory.
Proactive Interference
Activities that occur after to be remembered movement we need to remember negatively affects memory.
Retroactive Interference
Memory is enhanced when patients of athletes are asked to remember the _______ of a movement.
beginning
To enhance memory invoke ______ learning instead of incidental learning.
intentional
True or False: Chunking can help enhance memory.
True
Using ___& ___ _____ can help enhance memory.
visual & verbal labels
Telling students they will be tested is an example of what strategy to enhance learning?
Invoking intentional learning
True or False: The more the practice environment resembles the test environment the worse the retention of the learned skill or skills.
False: Retention of a skill increases with an increased resemblance between the practice and testing environment.
A change in the capability of a person to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement performance as a result of practice or experience.
Motor Learning
What are some general performance characteristics associated with learning a motor skill?
Persistent improvement.
Persistent increase in trial-to-trial/performance-to-performance consistency
Increase in adaptability to environmental context variations.
Increase in stability (decrease effects of disturbances)
Relatively permanent, not directly observable, due to practice or experience, and not influenced by performance variables.
Learning
The execution of a skill at specific time and situation, observable behavior, temporary, and can be influenced by performance variables such as fatigue or alertness.
Performance
Why assess learning?
Accountability issues.
What are 4 ways to assess motor skill learning?
Performance curves
Retention Tests
Transfer Tests
Observe Changes in Coordination Dynamics
Purpose: To test relative permanence of what was learned during practice.
Retention Tests
Involves outcome & kinematic measures, looking for improvement and an increase in trial-to-trial consistency.
Performance Curves
Immediate (Short Delay) Retention Test
< 24 Hours
Delayed Retention Task Retention Test
> 24 Hours
Performing the same skill after a period of no practice.
Retention Test
Purpose: Test the adaptability of what was learned during practice.
Transfer Test
What are the 2 different ways you can do a transfer test?
You can change the environment
You can change the task characteristics
Purpose: To assess coordination changes during practice and tests.
Observe changes in coordination dynamics
Method of assessing motor skill learning that looks for evidence of consistency/stability.
Observe changes in coordination dynamics
A practice condition characteristic that artificially inflates or depresses performance but does not influence learning.
Performance Variable
Winstein’s experiment in 1996 provides the perfect example of the effect of a _________.
Performance Variable
What were the results of Winstein’’s experiment in 1996?
People given the most feedback (concurrent) performed the best in practice but the worst during the retention tests. The people given the least feedback (terminal-5) did the best during the retention tests,
Temporary period of time of no performance improvement, but eventually improvement continues.
Performance Plateau
The influence of previous experience on learning a new skill and performing an experienced skill in a new performance context.
Transfer of Learning
What is this type of transfer of learning: Previous experience facilitates learning a new skill or performing in a new context.
Positive Transfer of Learning
What is this type of transfer of learning: Previous experience hinders or slows learning a new skill or performing in a new context.
Negative Transfer of Learning
What is this type of transfer of learning: Previous experience has no effect on learning a new skill or performing in a new context.
Neutral (Zero) Transfer of Learning
Why is transfer of learning important?
Sequencing activities
Evaluating effectiveness
What are the 2 explanation on why positive transfer occurs?
Similarity of skill/context components
Similarity of info processing activity required
Why does negative transfer occur?
Similar environmental context characteristics BUT different movement requirements
Differences in spatial and timing aspects of the movement.
True or False: Negative Transfer is temporary and can be overcome with practice.
True
The positive influence of previous experience performing a skill with one limb on learning or performing the same skill with a different limb.
Bilateral Transfer