Ap Psych Unit 6

Developmental psychology

The branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

Zygote

The fertilized egg that undergoes rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

Harmful agents, such as chemicals or viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A condition caused by a pregnant mother's heavy drinking, leading to physical and cognitive abnormalities in the child.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness to a repeated stimulus over time.

Maturation

The biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Cognition

All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor stage

The stage (from birth to about 2 years) during which infants know the world mostly through sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Preoperational stage

The stage (from about 2 to 7 years) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend concrete logic.

Conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Egocentrism

The preoperational child’s difficulty in seeing things from another’s perspective.

Theory of mind

The ability to infer others’ thoughts, feelings, and mental states.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

A disorder marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, along with rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

Concrete operational stage

The stage (from about 7 to 11 years) during which children gain the ability to think logically about concrete events.

Formal operational stage

The stage (beginning around age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning around 8 months of age.

Attachment

An emotional bond with a caregiver, shown in young children by their seeking closeness and showing distress when separated.

Critical period

An optimal period shortly after birth when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is necessary for proper development.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Basic trust

A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy, formed during infancy with responsive caregivers.

Self-concept

A person's understanding and evaluation of who they are.

Gender

The social and cultural characteristics associated with male and female roles.

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Gender role

The set of expected behaviors for males and females in a society.

Role

A set of expectations about social behavior.

Gender identity

A person’s sense of being male, female, or a combination of both.

Social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing, imitating, and experiencing rewards or punishments.

Gender typing

The acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine roles.

Transgender

A term for people whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex at birth.

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Identity

One’s sense of self; the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Social identity

The part of an individual’s self-concept derived from membership in social groups.

Intimacy

The ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.

Emerging adulthood

A period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full adult independence.

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both males and females; females have two X chromosomes, while males have one.

Y chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males; when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Testosterone

The most important male sex hormone; stimulates the development of male sex organs in the fetus and male characteristics during puberty.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary sex characteristics

Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice changes, and body hair.

Menarche

A female’s first menstrual period.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which weakens the immune system.

Sexual orientation

An enduring sexual attraction toward members of one’s own sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes.

Menopause

The natural cessation of menstruation, marking the end of a woman’s reproductive years.

Cross-sectional study

A study in which people of different ages are compared at the same time.

Longitudinal study

A research method in which the same individuals are studied and retested over a long period.

Social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Jean Piaget

Developed the theory of cognitive development, proposing four stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) to explain how children's thinking evolves over time.

Lev Vygotsky

Emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural influences on cognitive development, introducing the concepts of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding.

Konrad Lorenz

Studied imprinting in animals and proposed that attachment is an innate process that occurs during a critical period in development.

Harry Harlow

Conducted experiments with rhesus monkeys, demonstrating the importance of comfort and attachment in early development over basic needs like food.

Margaret Harlow

Worked alongside Harry Harlow in studies of maternal separation and social development in monkeys, emphasizing the importance of caregiving and love.

Mary Ainsworth

Developed the Strange Situation experiment to study attachment styles in infants, identifying secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachment patterns.

Diana Baumrind

Identified three primary parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) and their effects on child development.

Carol Gilligan

Criticized Kohlberg’s theory of moral development for being male-centered and proposed an alternative theory emphasizing relationships and care-based morality.

Albert Bandura

Developed the social learning theory, emphasizing the role of observational learning, modeling, and self-efficacy in cognitive development.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Proposed a stage theory of moral development, outlining three levels (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional) based on moral reasoning rather than behavior.

Erik Erikson

Created a psychosocial development theory with eight stages, each characterized by a psychological conflict that must be resolved for healthy development.

Sigmund Freud

Introduced the psychosexual stages of development and emphasized the role of the unconscious mind in shaping behavior and thought processes.