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Genotype
A person’s complete set of genes.
Phenotype
Observable features that result from the interaction between a person’s genes and the environment.
Germ disc
Small cluster of cells in the center of the zygote.
Placenta
Cells closest to the uterus that become the placenta.
Zygote
The fertilized egg.
Embryo
The stage from week 3 to 8, which has the amniotic sack and umbilical cord.
Fetus
The stage where essential life systems finish developing and experiences taste and hears sounds.
Amniotic fluid
Fluid that cushions the embryo and provides a constant temperature.
Age of viability
22-28 weeks after conception, indicating a chance of survival if born prematurely.
Risk factors
Factors such as inadequate nutrition, stress, and age of the pregnant women.
Teratogens
An agent that causes abnormal prenatal development.
Prenatal diagnosis
Ultrasounds and chorionic villus sampling used to detect genetic disorders.
Stages of labor
1st Stage: Dilated Cervix, uterus contracts; 2nd Stage: Head crowns, baby comes out; 3rd Stage: Detached placenta.
Childbirth approaches
Natural childbirth and medical procedures or medication.
Premature birth
When babies are born before the 36th week, usually resolving developmental delays by age 2-3.
Low birth weight
Usually a result of mothers’ alcohol consumption or poor nutrition.
Birth complications
Issues such as Cephalopelvic disproportion, Irregular position, Preeclampsia, and Prolapsed umbilical cord.
In vitro fertilization
A medical procedure to help couples conceive when they cannot do it naturally.
Infant mortality rate
Percentage of infants who die before their 1st birthday.
Eugenics
The attempt to alter human genetics to improve someone.
Reflexes
Includes Babinski, Blink, Moro, Palmar, Rooting, Stepping, Sucking, Withdrawal.
Apgar Test
A test that assesses a newborn's health immediately after birth.
Swaddling
Wrapping a baby in a blanket to restrict their movement.
Newborn states – alert inactivity
Calm with eyes open, taking in the environment.
Newborn states – waking activity
Eyes are open and unfocused with bursts of uncoordinated motion.
Newborn states – sleeping
Eyes closed; may breathe regularly or gently move.
Crying types
Basic cry: soft to intense; Mad cry: intense variation; Pain cry: sudden burst followed by pause.
REM sleep
Half of a newborn's sleep is irregular/rapid-eye movement.
Sudden infant death syndrome
Sudden death of an apparently healthy baby.
Temperament
A consistent style or pattern of behavior.
Malnourished
One in four children worldwide under the age of five is malnourished.
Breastfeeding benefits
Breast milk is the best way to ensure proper nourishment.
Neuron
Cells that make up the brain.
Myelin
A substance that axons begin to acquire around seven months after conception.
Synaptic pruning
The process where only active synapses remain.
Motor skills
Different muscle movements such as sitting up, walking, grabbing.
Locomote
Locomotor skills improve rapidly in the 15 months after birth.
Fine motor skills
Skills that involve coordinating the movement of individual fingers.
Perception
How the brain perceives, selects, modifies, and organizes impulses.
Theory of mind
The innate understanding of the relationships between mind and behavior.
Schemes
Psychological structures that organize experience.
Assimilation
Incorporating new experiences into an existing schema.
Accommodation
Modifying schemes based on new experiences.
Equilibrium
Replacing outmoded ways of thinking with advanced schemes.
Sensorimotor period
The developmental stage from birth to 2 years.
Preoperational thinking
Includes egocentrism, centration, and appearance as reality.
Object permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen.
Mental hardware
Built-in mental and neural structures that allow the mind to operate.
Mental software
Mental programs that are the basis for performing tasks.
Attention
Processes determining which information is processed further.
Autobiographical memory
People’s memory of the experiences/events of their own lives.
Zone of proximal development
A certain time frame to teach a child a specific skill.
Scaffolding
Teacher gradually reduces direction as children progress.
Private speech
Comments children give themselves to regulate their own behavior.
Phonemes
Unique sounds used to create words.
Infant-directed speech
Speech in which adults speak slowly with exaggerated pitch changes.
Crying, cooing, babbling
Babbling are speech-like sounds that emerge after cooing.
Fast mapping
Quick connections made between words and meanings by children.
Telegraphic speech
Includes only words directly relevant to meaning.
Overregularization
Applying grammatical rules to exceptions.
Trust and mistrust
Balance leads to hope in infants, openness to experience while recognizing danger.
Autonomy and shame/doubt
Child understands control of actions, which counters doubt and shame.
Attachment
Close socioemotional relationship with an adult, crucial for survival.
Secure attachment
Child does not cry when separated, but seeks proximity upon return.
Resistant attachment
Child is upset upon separation and difficult to console upon return.
Disorganized attachment
Child shows confusion and contradicting behaviors towards caregiver.
Basic emotions
Universal emotions experienced worldwide involving subjective feelings and behaviors.
Stranger wariness
Emerges at around six months, indicating fear.
Social referencing
Infants look to parents for cues on interpreting situations.
Emotional regulation
The ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences.
Solitary play
Activities like coloring or doing puzzles alone.
Parallel play
Children play alone but are interested in others' activities.
Cooperative play
Play with a distinct theme and assigned roles.
Enabling exchange
Typically used by girls to support interaction.
Constricting exchange
Typically used by boys to foster competition.
Prosocial behavior
Behavior that benefits another person.
Social roles
Behaviors, rights, and obligations associated with a societal status.
Gender stereotype
Generalized views about attributes or characteristics of genders.
Relational aggression
Harming others by damaging their peer relationships.
Gender identity
An individual's personal experience of their gender.
