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Secular Growth Trend
Changes in body over generations
Nutrition, healthcare, and lifestyle has an influence
Flexibility of children in middle childhood
Increased flexibility in motor skills
New ways of cooperating, competing, winning, losing in games with rules
Gender differences in growth patterns
Occur due to combo of synaptic connections/pruning and myleniation
Results in greater lateralization of the cerebral hemispheres and more complex abilities
Brain weight increases by 10% with growth in white matter and gray matter which contribute to improved cognitive development
White matter
myelinated nerve fibers
Gray matter
Neurons and supportive materials
Healthy Diet and Better Cognitive Performance
Healthy Diet = better cognitive performance
Good diet is necessary for energy and brain function
Influences on Overweight and Obesity
Heredity
Environment (Low SES and cultural food environment)
Low physical activity
Television Viewing
Responsiveness to food cues
Parents feeding children
Overfeeding or over controlling food
Overeating
All lead to type 2 diabetes and obesity
Effective Interventions for Childhood Obesity
Promotion of healthy behavior
improving diet and encouraging physical activity
Educating parents of proper nutrition and encouraging family support
child more likely to adopt healthier habits
Ear Infections in Middle Childhood
Decrease in ear infections after the development of Eustachian tube
Eustachian Tube matures and helps reduce occurrence of Otitis Media
Otitis Media
Middle ear infection common during childhood
Mytopia
“Nearsightedness”
Influenced by heredity, early biological trauma, low birth weight, eye strain and SES
Prevalent during developmental stage
Effective Treatments for Enuresis
Medication and Urine alarms
Meds can help with management
Urine alarms prevent bedwetting by waking up children before they urinate
Enuresis
Bedwetting
Asthma
High sensitivity to bronchial tubes, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors like exposure to irritants
Most common disease in childhood
2% of children in the US
Inflammation in the airways that lead to symptoms like wheezing, coughing, and difficulty breathing
Advances in Writing in Middle Childhood
Age 6: alphabet and numbers 1-10
Ability to copy 2-D shapes and beginnings of depth cues
Difficulty with 3-D shapes
Advances in Motor Skills and Influences
Improvements in flexibility, agility, and force
Influenced by more efficient information processing, leading to enhanced motor skills
Differences viewed with childs play
ability to engage in games
reflecting on advances in perspective taking
Provide opportunities for trying various methods of cooperation, competition, and dealing with wins and losses
Gender Differences in Motor Skills
Observed though children’s play
rough and tumble play more common in boys
dominance hierarchy and group ordering
influenced by biological factors
Role-Oriented Games and Perspective Taking
Children learn how to follow rules in games to help understand perspective of others
competition, competition, wins/loss
Crucial for interactions and relationships
Rough-and-tumble Play
Play-fighting and chasing
Preschool but peaks in middle childhood
Dominance, hierarchy, conflict prediction
Common with various animals and cultures
Changes from Pre-operational to the Operational stage
More logical, flexible, organized thinking
Conservation, classification, seriation, spatial reasoning, hierarchies
Egocentrism —> broader perspective
Operational stage
Perform mental operations to concrete objects but struggle with
Limits in the Concrete Operational Thought
Struggle with abstract thought/problems
Work out logic separately rather than applying is to general logical principles
Ages 7-11
More logical and organized thinking
Second-order Beliefs
Understanding that someone can have beliefs about other peoples beliefs
Middle childhood
Grasp that other people can think differently and have different opinions
key aspect of cognitive development in this stage
Academic Self-efficacy
Ones own belief in their ability to succeed academically
schooling promotes the development, memory, executive functioning, and theory of mind in middle childhood
Indirectly effects academic self-efficacy by enhancing the child’s ability to learn, problem solving skills, and others’/own mental processes
Cognitive self-regulation and self-efficacy
Development of self-regulation and self-efficacy develops in middle childhood
Conscious of how mental strategies work, appreciate the impact of interactions on cognitive development
Improvement of mental strategies such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration, all which help with memory
Schooling plays. a significant role in promoting the development of memory strategies, cognitive development, and cognitive self-regulation
Phonics vs Whole Language Development
Combining both is more effective for children learning reading skills
Phonics
Relationship between sounds and letters
Whole Language
Meaning and context
Number sense vs. drill in computing
Number sense is better than drill in computing because drill in computing only promotes memorization rather than learning the topic
Number sense
Allows children to grasp the mathematical concepts and apply them to various topics
IQ testing and Predicting Academic Performance
Improvements in memory strategies, attention, and executive functioning during middle childhood and potentially impact IQ and academic performance positively
Better problem solving skills, ability to retain information better, and enhanced academic performance get reflected in IQ results
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
Three aspects
Analytical
Creative
Practical intelligence
Focus on problem solving skills and practical application of knowledge
In middle childhood, cognitive development and mental processes contribute to the development of the intelligence as they enhance problem solving skills and practical application
Gardner’s intelligences and unique development and bias
Piagets theory of cognitive development during middle childhood (Concrete operational stage)
Development of logical thinking, organization, and understanding of mental processes
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
focuses on intelligences:
Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spacial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic
Can develop during Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Stereotype threat and ethnic differences in IQ
People feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes of their group can impact performance, including IQ score, especially in marginalized groups
Ethnic differences causes
Socio-economic status, access to resources, cultural bias in testing, and educational opportunities
Cognitive advantages of bilingual speakers
Enhanced executive functioning, attention control, and memory skills
Increased cognitive flexibility and better at multitasking (due to ability to switch languages)
Control of 2 different languages = cognitive advantage of the brains executive functioning
better problem solving skills and focus
Code-switching
Alternating between 2+ languages or a variety of language in conversation
Requires cognitive flexibility and understanding of different language systems
Better understanding of how interactions among multiple variables affect cognitive performance
Industry vs Inferiority in middle childhood
Develop a sense of competence and mastery in their abilities
may feel efforts if they fall short
impacts self esteem and motivation negatively
Self-conscious emotions in middle childhood
Pride, guilt, and shame
influenced by personal responsibility, motivation to take challenges, make amends, and contribute to adjustment problems when adults arent around
Better emotional understanding in middle childhood
Children improve their emotional understanding based on internal states rather than external events
more aware of circumstances that evoke mixed emotions and appreciating contradictory emotional cues in others
supported by cognitive developments in social experiences
rise in empathy
Influences on self esteem
Parents
Teachers
Teachers’ messages
Cultural value
Gender
Ethnicity
Media Exposure
Child-rearing practices
Achievement related attributions
Importance of encouraging children to strive for realistic goals
Social Comparisons
Older children compare themselves to multiple people at once and then show a shift toward evaluating themselves based on consequences rather than behavior
More realistic self-esteem in middle childhood
Differentiate their self-esteem into categories like academic, social, physical, athletic competence
high self esteem —> positive traits
low self esteem —> negative behaviors like depression, anxiety, and antisocial behavior
Different types of coping
Problem-centered coping, emotional-centered coping, emotional self efficacy
More nuanced understanding of self-concept
Self concepts become more defined
general dispositions
Ages 8-11: evaluate themselves based on competence rather than behavior, then comparing themselves to multiple individuals
Mastery oriented and learned helplessness children and influences
Mastery oriented credit success to ability, believe ability can improve with effort and focus on learning goals
Helpless children attribute failure to ability and success to uncontrollable factors, leading to giving up on tasks before trying
Influences:
Family
Teachers
Cultural beliefs
Gender stereotypes
Influence of emotional understanding and empathy on social relationships
Gains in emotional understanding and empathy supported by cognitive development /social experience contribute to more complex and psychologically based friendships
Children more aware of emotions and can interpret contradictory cues in others more likely to have high quality friendships based on trust
Parental sensitivity and emotional self-regulation
Problem centered coping
Emotion centered coping
Emotional self efficacy
Problem centered coping
dealing with a stressful situation by identifying the problem, then taking action to address it
builds confidence in choices
Emotional centered coping
manage emotions related to stress, focusing on regulating emotions rather than the problem by seeking emotional support, positive thinking, and relaxation tactics
develops coping skills for challenges
Emotional self efficacy
plays into overall self esteem. Ones own belief to regulate their emotions effectively
influences self esteem and perceive/respond to emotional challenges, which in turn effects self worth and confidence
Emotional self-regulation and peer relationships
shift between emotion centered coping, leading to self efficacy
peer relationships become more complex and childrens development depend on the nature of their friends
Internal states and emotions
School aged children more likely to explain emotions referring to internal states rather than external events
Increased awareness
Supported by cognitive development which leads to gains in empathy
Moral understanding in middle childhood and adaptiveness of guilt
Children develop more flexible application of moral rules through actions, intentions, and contexts
guilt prompts the desire to self improve
Girls’ and boys’ identification of “masculine” and feminine personality traits
Identification with masculine and feminine influenced by socialization
gender stereotyping by age 5 but peaks to adult-like at age 11
Adults treating children differently based on sex influences development
Gender differences in social subjects and occupations
Gender stereotyped beliefs influence children’s preferences and performance
Peer culture
Formed based on proximity and similarity
unique values, standards, dress codes, specialized vocab, and places to socialize
leads to exclusion of peers who deviate and may involve relational aggression