AP Psychology Unit 2

Heredity

passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another

Nature vs Nurture

controversy that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Twin Studies

common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior

Fraternal Twins

siblings who develop from separate eggs and separate sperm cells, but during the same fertilization period.

Identical Twins

twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits to produce two individuals who carry the same complement of genes

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Evolutionary Psychology

study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Natural Selection

the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change

Hormones

chemical messengers, mostly those manufacture by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

Adrenal Gland

a pair of endocrine glands; sits above kidneys; secrete hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (fight or flight)

Pituitary Gland

endocrine system’s most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus it releases hormones that influences growth and controls other endocrine glands

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and spinal cord; transmits and receives messages to and from the peripheral nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System

sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; somatic and autonomic nervous system

Somatic Nervous System

division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

part of the PNS that control the glands and muscles of the internal organs (like heart); sympathetic nervous system arouses while parasympathetic nervous system calms

Sympathetic Nervous System

division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situation (accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, slow digestion, alert)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving energy
(decreases heartbeat, lowers blood pressure)

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming info from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

Afferent Neurons

sensory neurons; takes info from sense to the brain

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain and spinal cord (CNS) to the muscles and glands

Efferent Neurons

motor neurons; takes info from the brain to the rest of the body

Interneurons

CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor inputs.

Receptor Sites

locations on a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmitter fits like a key into a lock

Dendrites

bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receives messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Soma (Cell Body)

contains the nucleus an other parts of the cell needed to sustain life

Axon

extension of a neurons ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Myelin Sheath

fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that protect the neuron and speed up neural impulses

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined

Terminal Buttons

end buttons; branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters

Vesicles

small membrane sacs that specialized in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

Synapses

junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Semipermeable Membrane

a membrane that allows some molecules to pass through but not others

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Schwann Cells

supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of the myelin

Depolarization

loss of a state of polarity; loss or reduction of a negative membrane potential

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon after simulated by a sensory receptor or chemical signals

Repolarization

return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell

Resting Potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Reuptake

the reabsorption by a neuron of a neurotransmitter following the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse

Refractory Period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated; period of inactivity after a neuron or muscle cell has undergone excitation

All-Or-None Response

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing; if dendrites of a neuron receives enough neurotransmitters to push the neuron past its threshold, the neuron will completely fire each time

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action; drug mimics neurotransmitters; excite

Antagonist

a molecule/drug that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters action (blocks its release from the sending neuron)

Excitatory vs Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

excitatory neurotransmitters can excite the next cell into firing and inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the next cell from firing

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle transmission (when released to muscle cells, muscle contracts...when blocked, muscles can’t contract = paralysis)

Epinephrine

neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress aka adrenaline

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation
-helps control alertness (fight or flight) and arousal; undersupply can depress mood

Glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory (plays critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions)

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, and learning and the brain’s pleasure and reward system

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Medulla

helps control vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure

Pons

a major pathway for motor and sensory information between the body and higher level brain functioning.

Reticular Formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal and conciousness

Thalamus

brain’s sensory control center; located on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

’little brain’; processes sensory input and coordinates movement output and balance; judge time, modulate emotions, discriminate sounds and textures, voluntary movement

Amygdala

two lima bean sized clusters linked to emotion; influences aggression and fear

Hypothalamus

below the thalamus, directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp); helps govern endocrine system via pituitary gland; emotion and reward

Hippocampus

helps process explicit memories for storage; memories processed here and sent to other locations

Frontal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead; speaking and muscle movements and making plans and judgements

Parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobes

visual areas, each receiving info from the opposite visual field

Temporal lobes

above the ears; auditory areas, each receiving info primarily from the opposite ear

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements

Somatosensory Cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are NOT involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Split Brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task (hotspots shows where brain is most active)

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue (shows brain anatomy/structure)

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans (shows brain function)

Neuroplasticity

the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment

Neurogenesis

creation of new neurons in the adult brain

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it (blind people can accurately describe a path of a moving object or grasp objects they can’t see)

Selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Circadian rhythms

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle (like temp and wakefulness)

Psychoactive drugs

chemical substances that alter perceptions , mood, or behavior .
(affect nerve synapses and neurotransmitters by binding with agonists on cell surfaces to support an action, block receptor sites (antagonists) to suppress an action, or block the reuptake of neurotransmitters)

Tolerance

after long term use the brain produces less of a specific neurotransmitter developing this

Addiction

a state of psychological or physical dependence (or both) on the use of alcohol or other drugs

Withdrawal

a set of symptoms associated with discontinuing a drug--reverses neuroadaptation
(cravings, tremors, anxiety, depression, seizures, death) that are psychological and/or physiological

Physical Dependence

the state of an individual who has repeatedly taken a drug and experiences unpleasant physiological symptoms if he or she stops taking it

Psychological Dependence

drugs that reduce stress become an increasingly important part of a user’s life to relieve negative emotions

Depressants

lower neural activity and slow body functioning
- causes dependence, tolerance, withdrawal, and/or psychological addiction

Stimulants

drugs that speed up the body’s functions; provide users with a sense of increased energy, mental alertness, and forced wakefulness
- causes dependence, tolerance, withdrawal, and/or psychological addiction and irreversible changes in mood

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
- tranquilizers

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depresses neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
-short term pleasure, big cravings, large doses, discomfort from withdrawal

Sleep cycles

typical pattern of sleep, part of circadian rhythm

NREM Stage 1

alpha waves (slow, relaxed, awake state); mild hallucinations before entering this stage; theta waves

NREM Stage 2

sleep spindles, sleep talking, theta

NREM Stage 3

delta(slow waves , deep sleep); difficult to wake, more tired

REM cycle

a period of sleep characterized by brain-wave activity similar to that seen in wakefulness in which REM and dreaming occur

Sleep spindles

short bursts of brain activity/waves that characterize stage 2 NREM sleep

K-Complexes

a brief, high amp spike-and-rebound waveform recorded in the scalp electroencephalogram during sleep onset

Dreams

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

Wish Fulfillment

the idea that dreaming allows us to act out the desires that we must repress during the day (Freud)

Manifest Content

the remembered story line of a dream