Revolutions

Enlightenment philosophers

* Locke - social contract theory: protect natural rights
* Montesquieu - separation of king an bureaucracy (constitutional monarchy); 3 branches
* Rousseau - humans are good but corrupted by history
* they could fix this by making their own laws
* social contract
* Wollstencraft - yay women

Age of Revolution

* 1770-1848
* conflicts bc innovation
* __Safavids__ fell
* __Mughals__ weaker
* __Ottoman__ declines
* __Russia__ - peasant revolts - serfs
* __Qing__ China fragmented - weak for europeans
* __African__ nations decline - Europe arrives

Causes of the Age of Revolution

* __Little Ice Age__
* 1650, 1770, 1850
* cooling periods
* began revolutionary change
* Spread of the __Enlightenment__
* questioning government

British Colonies

* Settler colonies
* colonists = European descent
* Salutary neglect
* trading centers: NYC and Boston
* connected with enlightenment

The French and Indian War

Conflict in the 7 years war

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* Britain + Colonies vs France + colonies + some natives


* France had native allies - fur trade
* Britain pushed Natives - bad relationship

Winning the 7 Years War

* Britain set troops to North America


* Professional soldiers - needed wages
* Washington led a millitia
* Britain need money
* Colonists pay


* resentment grows - war is won

Costs of the 7 Years War

* Britain spent lots of money
* During the War
* American Merchants made profit w/ war goods


* Britain - colonists haven’t done their part
* Colonists suffered taxes (1-2%)

After the 7 Years War

* Britain french colonies in NA


* Proclamation of 1763 - peace w/ Natives and GB
* no settlements past Appalachian mountains
* colonists = upset
* Sugar Act + Stamp Act (to pay war debt)
* Colonial leaders in VA and MA decried taxes
* “No taxation without representation”

First Shot of the American Revolution

Following standoffs: Colonials + British

* Fighting begins
* **Battle of Lexington**
* major skirmish
* many American unsure
* **patriot** vs loyalist
* __The continental congress__ sends urgent messages to __King George III__ asking for diplomatic ends to the conflict
* 1/3 Patriot | 1/3 Loyalist | 1/3 neutral

Disadvantages for the Americans

* British army = well funded; support of NYC + South


* Colonial army = State Militias; volunteers - defense of states


* different equipment


* No command until George Washington = commander


* Paying for the War
* congress can’t tax
* Rebels can’t get British currency
* Congress creates a currency - **Continentals**
* no value - keep printing more
* not backed up by gold

Advantages for the Americans

* American forces = own turf


* British sending armies - expensive and time consuming
* __Guerilla Warfare__
* British forces -Line Warfare
* __American Liberty__ was an attractive cause to fight for
* European soldiers came to help- __Marquis De Lafayette__

Winning the American Revolution

* Needed outside help


* __Benjamin Franklin__ = Ambassador to France - begs them
* __Battle of Saratoga__ = major turning point - mericans beat british
* Spain + France - America can win??
* Battle of Yorktown - American + French
* Treaty of Paris (1783) - end of the war

After the American Revolution

* Revolution affirms Democracy


* Washington asked to be king - NO
* Unalienable rights declared

Debate on Government:

* Articles of Confederation - weak, power to states
* Constitution - Federal Power + Bill of Rights

Before the French Revolution Exploded

* French lost colonies after __7 years war__


* Lost revenue - Fur Trade
* english have to pay
* help @ __Battle of Saratoga__


* give them money
* rebuilt a navy + army to fight British in US and Caribbean

Effects of the American Revolution for the French

* incredibly expensive


* young Frenchmen abandon France
* Marquis de Lafayette
* Bring new ideas of rights and sovereignty home after the war

Estates

* Social starding


1. Clergy = first estate
2. Nobles = second estate
3. Everyone Else = third estate

Estates General

* supposed to represent the will of the French nation
* people thought it was necessary to invoke new taxes (nobles and clergy = no taxes)
* each estate had one vote
* Nobles + clergy voted together
* meeting with all the estates

Effects of the Estates General

* they meet - does not go well
* the first thing they do is verify the credentials of everyone there → controversy

The National Assembly

* **Third Estate** leaves Estates General and forms it


* Claim right to make laws in France
* make it clear that they aren’t coming back
* some Nobles and Clergy join in
* conservative members of 1st and 2nd leave France

Flight to Varennes

* part of radicalization of the French Revolution
* 1789 - bread shortages in Paris → angry Parisians
* women marched to **Versailles** and demand the king’s help
* Lafayette to ensure the safety of the royal family
* women demanded the royal family back to Paris
* 2 years later - King and his family try to escape France to get support to take back their country
* faith in the monarchy is gone

The Trial of Citizen Louis capet

* Varenes, France being invaded by all of Europe → tensions


* majority of the National assembly were radical leftists
* brought forward that Louis committed treason against France
* Loss of Noble Privilege → Louis = citizen
* vote to convict: 693-0
* Vote to Execute: 380-286

Radicalization of the French Revolution

* France in crisis → National Assembly had slow reactions


* Vote to create the **Committee of Public Safety**
* **Robespierre** = leader
* committee lost unlimited power
* managed the military, courts, and most legislation
* They implement **Levee en Masse**
* everyone must join the war effort
* Men - drafted
* Women - factories to produce for the war
* Children - cook and bring supplies

The Reign of Terror

* __Maximillian Robespierre__ = leader of **Jacobin** party


* France was under attack, war going poorly
* accused people of working against revolution
* Victims of **Terror** = political opponents to Robespierre
* people executed for “counter-revolutionary” activity
* 1 year; accusing each other to save themselves
* ends when Robespierre claims treason on **hardcore allies**
* Robespierre himself is executed
* Guillotine!

Napoleone Di Buonaparte

* Spoke poor French - made fun of


* attended prestigious military academy
* artillery (cannon) commander
* his troops actually fight for him
* Radicalized during the revolution… kind of
* did not support Robspierre
* Equal rights for all men in France
* believes in __**meritocracy**__

Sister Republics

* Napoleon conquered parts of Europe → **Exporting the Revolution**


* __The Netherlands__ - conquered and had a Republic established - __The Batavian Republic__
* Napoleon created a republic in **Italy**
* creates Italian **Nationalism** - unifies the country
* French set up these governments → French = influential in these new countries
* able to “conquer” without conquering new lands - good PR

Napoleon coming to power - 1799

* People of France = done with radical execution → wanted a new leader


* Napoleon = certified war hero
* backing of the army - Citizen Army - most people involved in some way
* compassionate and stern leader - like a king
* Argued he would moderate the revolution
* Stopped hating on the Church
* Democracy = less prevalent - all power to Napoleon

Reforms of Napoleon

Did what great emperors of history do - created his own legal code - __The Napoleonic code__

* Women stay in the house and bear children
* All men have qual rights
* Slavery not abolished - reintroduced in colonies
* basis of these laws still used today

Unintended consequences of Napoleon’s conquests

* Napoleon made lots of countries in his conquests
* Italy
* Germany - The confederation of the Rhine
* Netherlands - Batavian Republic
* new countries began to see themselves __against__ French conquerers
* took what they wanted from France and the kicked them out
* kind of like Korea usning china
* This is the birth of **Nationalism**

Fall of Napoleon

* Napoleon stupidly fought Russia in winter
* lost 90% of his men
* pushed back to France - surrenders to the allies


* Exiled to Elba
* comes back for the __100 days__ - loses at the **Battle of** __Waterloo__ - exiled to St. Helena - middle of the Atlantic

St Domingue - Haiti before it was Haiti

* French took it from Spain


* perfect Climate for cash crops
* __Coffee__ - 60% of world
* __Sugar__ - 40% of world
* many in France relied on Hatian goods
* Terrible for Living
* Haiti relied on slave labor
* Majority come from Africa
* Most natives = killed in the colonization
* HALF the slaves coming to the island died in the __first year__
* yellow fever killed many
* terrible slave masters + agriculture killed many also

Causes of the Hatian Reovlution

* 4 classes in St. Domingue


* __Big Whites__ **-** Plantation Owners
* __Small Whites__ - free white people - own little - no voting
* __Free POC__ **-** very few political rights
* harassment by Small Whites
* __Slaves__
* slaves = different experiences in Haiti
* Slaves @ top of hierarchy would manage the plantation
* Slaves that escaped from master control - __Maroons__

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First Stage of the Hatian Reolution

* Began with the French Revolution


* Early revolutionaries → __Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen__
* equal rights for all free men
* __Small whites__ were initially happy
* until they realized that **Free poc would get rights**
* conflict between __Small Whites vs Big Whites + Free Poc__
* well off slaves hear about revolutionary activities
* People saying __King Louis had abolished slavery__ but Big Whites were hiding this
* (not true)

Slave Revolt Begins

* Slave leaders organize a slave revolt


* slaves from all over the island began to rise in revolt - using __machetes__ used to harvest sugar
* slaves burned plantations and harvesting tools


* to ruin chances of working
* Slaves that did the uprising were killed by slave armies - not trustworthy
* Masters killed their slaves - not trustworthy
* 7,000 in **Le Cap** alone

Racial Tensions in the Hatian Revolution

* slave revolt became a race-war


* Many **Free POC** sided with the __Whites__ - more in common than slaves
* **Big Whites** __fled__ the country
* **Small Whites** = main __power__ in government
* __The French Commission__ try to reassert order
* order Small Whites to negotiate with the slave leaders
* Slave leaders willing to negotiate
* Leaders will be set free and forgiven
* Order the slaves back to the plantations
* Leaders can have the country with everything looted - will not be pursued

British and Spanish in the Hatian Revolution

* Haiti = most prosperous colony - other Europeans want it


* British and Spanish try to take advantage
* __Spanish__ give resources to Slave Armies for __exclusive trading rights__ after independence
* __British__ directly invade the North
* Slave leaders agree that no European can be trusted
* __The Republican French__ (Robespierre) send army and a new commission to calm things down
* They __abolish slavery__
* offer to __help__ freed armies defeat the Spanish and Britain

Toussaint L’ouverture

* Born as a slave in St. Domingue


* good slave master
* basic education - spoke french
* ran the plantation - started his own before the revolution
* participated in beginning of Hatian revolution
* old revolutionary general (mid 40’s)
* “Papa Toussaint”
* Disenchanted with the og revolution - joined the Spanish

Toussaint winning the Hatian Revolution

French abolished slavery → Toussaint changed sides

* successful general for the Spanish
* completely pushed the Spanish out of Santo Domingo (the whole island)
* created an army rivaling the Europeans
* Napoleon tried to recapture Haiti - kind of successful
* Toussaint surrenders to French
* Captured and brought to France - dies in prison
* **Dessalines**, brings the army back and defeats the French

End of the Hatian Revolution

* Napoleon’s attempt to reconquer the island = terrible


* Soldiers died of Yellow Fever and other disease
* **Dessalines** runs the government now
* free republic for Haiti
* dictator for life (not democratic…?)
* slaughtered all white people on the island
* 3-5,000 people
* maintained a massive army - built forts everywhere; fearful of another French invasion

Effects of the Hatian Revolution

* Haiti = free republic in Caribbean


* Other Caribbean islands wait a long time
* The Hatian revolution scared the Colonizers
* places in the Caribbean still not independent
* Slave Revolt terrified slaveowners
* “Remember Haiti” - US
* No other slave revolt like the Hatian Revolution
* Fear → slave holders practiced cruelty to repress slaves

Social Structure in Latin America

__Peninsulares (0.1%)__

* Born in Spain
* high office in Spanish colonial government
* Spain kept loyalty of colonial leaders
* controlled wealth and power in Spanish colonies

__Creoles (22.8%)__

* Spanish ancestry, born in Latin America
* no high political office
* officers in colonial armies
* educated in Spain
* controlled some wealth and power

__Mestizos (7.3%)__

* European + Indian ancestry

__Mulattos (7.6%)__

* European + African ancestry

__Enslaved Africans (6.4%)__

* African borns as slaves in Latin America
* economic value in society (labor)

__Native Americans (55.8%)__

* Native people of Latin America prior to colonization
* little economic value to the Spanish
* most severely oppressed group

Sparks of the Latin American Revolutions

* __Spain__ = similar policies to __England__ for a while


* **Spanish** wanted more from colonies
* new government policies → challenged living
* __Tariffs__**,** __heavy taxes__**,** and __direct rule from Spain__
* __Creole__ elites studied from universities in Europe
* Schools taught the __Enlightenment__
* Dislike tyranny of absolute monarchs of **Spain**

More Sparks of the Latin American Revolutions

* Napoleon betrays ally Spain (height of his power)


* kicks out __Ferdinand VII__, appoints his bro __Joseph__
* __Joseph__ implements reforms
* __Constitution of 1812__ is created


* Catholicism = religion of the whole empire
* Constitutional Monarchy - Separation of Powers
* Freedom of the Press
* Universal Male Suffrage
* GUARANTEED representatives from the colonies
* colonies however didn’t know what to do with French king
* set up ***Juntas*** - military governments to take care of things while Spain figured out whatever it was doing

Father Hidalgo

* Leader of Mexican independence
* Mexico set up a ***Junta***


* leaders of Mexico begin to rise to create their own gov
* Father Hidalgo → __Cry of Dolores__ against new Spanish Viceroy (king’s rep)
* “take back your land stolen by Spanish 300 years ago?”
* Father Hidalgo got a big group of people - 10K
* army was inexperienced & didn’t want to be soldiers
* Father Hidalgo - captured and executed - revolution continues

Mexican Independence

* __Father Hidalgo’s__ death → more people join the cause


* Ferdinand = back in power - decides that they need to ramp up the violence to get the colonies back
* He captured and executed many big leaders
* new army forms against **Spanish**


* **Army of the Three Guarantees**
* Religion
* Independence
* Unity
* take over Mexico City → war ends.
* Mexico becomes **The First Mexican Empire**

South American Independence

* beginning of the movement - similar to Mexico


* Juntas throughout South America
* New constitution in Spain - great
* Ferdinand comes back - revokes the constitution
* Everyone is mad
* new characters join the South American independence movement


* __Simón Bolívar__ **-** Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Northern Peru
* __**José de San Martín**__ - Argentina, Chile, Southern Peru

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Simon Bolivar

* rich family in __Venezuela__


* educated in Europe
* access to the Enlightenment
* Learned Spanish monarchy = backwards
* wanted a Napoleonic state in South America
* life goal = independence in Venezuela
* Began revolutionary fighting in Venezuela
* goes poorly - exiled to **Haiti** during their revolution
* bsfs with a Haitian leader who gives him boats and soldiers - restart the fight in **South America**

Simon Bolivar winning the revolution

* **l**ed attempts to take over colonial Venezuela + Colombia


* support from British and haiti → created a massive army
* sometimes better equipped than outnumbered Spanish loyalists
* **Simón** - fighting for freedom and popular sovereignty - many signed on board that would otherwise have been apolitical
* His greatest ally - Jose Antonio Paez - good with horses
* **Simón** = very successful and sets up **Gran Colombia**,

End of the Latin American Independence Movements

* “**America** is __ungovernable__ “- Simón after ousted from power
* At one point, Simón = leader of 3 independent countries


* ambitions for a Pan-Latin America country
* Internal stuff and foreign interference stopped this
* Latin America just overthrew a monarchy, no more monarchs
* __Gran Colombia__ fell apart after Bolivar left

Effects of the Latin American Revolutions

* countries of South America were free!


* Most countries now had a **Constitution** written by Simon
* no Spanish racial caste system
* almost universal male suffrage
* kinda limits on the executive branch
* In reality, countries = little history of self-government
* everyone was used to the monarchy - lack of participation during Spanish rule
* South America = authoritarian tendencies

Origins of Nationalism

* Before, loyalty to a country = loyalty to their **King**


* __Nationalism__ = alternative - loyalty to people w/ shared culture & language
* Came from the **French Revolution**
* **Robespierre** & __Levee en Masse__ **-** involved everyone
* **Napoleon’s** → exporting of the revolution


* Conquered peoples took good values from France and then see themselves distinct from France

Printing press

* many purposes


* Spreads new and wacky ideas
* Patriotism + Popular sovereignty
* spreads extremist positions that hadn’t spread before
* Spreads slanted news
* Especially when a monarch does something monarchical
* One shared language
* printing in languages with the largest audience
* one **German**, **French**, **Italian**

Problems with minorities

* old Empires had to deal with their minority populations


* The __Austrian Empire__ = many different ethnicities
* absolute monarchies - self government not allowed in their other territories
* __nations__ within the Empire begin demand rights for themselves
* Hungary wants a say in government
* Austria says no

The Year of 1848

* Springtime of the people
* two new political parties - __Liberals__ and __Radicals__


* __Liberal__ parties = political representation for the upper middle class
* __Radical__ parties = radical change
* Overthrowing of monarchy
* Political representation for all (sometimes women??)
* Political rights for particular nationalities
* Government economic intervention - people want food; boo big business owners
* Less hours in factories
* Join together to destroy the authoritarians

More Year of 1848

* 1846-1848 was a bad time


* last of the __Little Ice Age__
* huge hail storms → destroyed crops in March-June
* few years were much colder
* more money on necessities
* Less crops = higher price for little
* Cooler temperatures = more coal needed = higher price
* **Potato Blight** occurs
* In some countries - potatoes = 70% of the caloric intake
* disease spreads potatoes in Europe - destroys **80% of potato crop.**

More 1848

* most of Europe = revolutionary activity


* overthrow of another French king.
* __Louis-Philippe__ tried to ban banquets → France rises against him - exiled to the UK
* __Second French Republic__ established
* now on the 5th
* fall of the French monarchy → German & Italian states revolt
* Major powers - **Austria + Prussia** have kings “leaving the capitol on their bellies”

Revolution falling apart

* __Radicals__ vs __Moderates__ **vs** __Conservatives/Reactionaries__


* Moderates = major political power
* do not implement social change radicals desired
* **Radicals** distrust the **Moderates**
* Organizations of moderates (__Frankfurt Parliament)__ -- disrupted by Radicals
* Members of the Parliament harassed by radical mob
* Open warfare between __Radicals__ and __Moderates__
* Moderates outlaw organization - armies to restore order to cities
* Moderates and Radicals are fighting each other → __Conservatives__ come back in force

End of 1848

* __1848__ ends in bloody reconquest of Europe by __**Conservatives**__


* Russia = one of the few without revolt in 1848
* Tsar Nicholas I decided he was upholder of **conservative** order
* army helped Austrians and the Prussians retake their countries from moderates and radicals.
* __France’s__ **r**evolution ends with a new round of elections
* President is now __Napoleon Bonaparte III__ **-** grandbaby
* promises to reassert order ‘make France great again’
* Three years later, he is up for reelection, **Napoleon III** institutes the __2nd French Empire__

Beginnings of the Modern Feminist Movement

* Came from the __Enlightenment__**!**
* Women = orchestrators of the **Salons**
* Sometimes would have their own meetings while men
* most important enlightenment stuff - women = homemakers

Seneca Falls - Elizabeth Cady Stanton

* first major feminist meetings = __Seneca Falls Convention (1848)__


* **to discuss the social, civil, and religious conditions of women”**
* 300 attendees, including __Frederick Douglass__**,** met to discuss issues regarding women’s rights
* 100 of the 300 signed the __Declaration of Sentiments__
* “all men __**and women**__ are created equal”
* 200 attendees did not sign bc women’s voting rights.

Different views on feminism

* __Seneca Falls__ wanted women’s rights on the basis of their humanity


* **Maternal Feminism** - women’s rights bc they were the mothers of everyone
* divorce rights → opponents said that the feminists were selfish - not fulfilling their “duties”
* others - way to rights was to make them indispensable to society


* __Florence Nightingale__ opened Britain up to female nursing
* __Jane Addams__ opened Settlement Houses in the US, giving homes to the destitute

Opposition and Adoption of Women’s rights

* people thought education was “ruining” feminist women


* large amount of the opposition came from women themselves
* worried about drafting and stuff
* “loss of feminine privilege
* first country with women’s suffrage New Zealand
* US gave women the right to vote in 1920
* France, founding place of revolutionary ideals, gave the right to vote in 1945

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

* Coal = efficient energy


* some problems
* hard to transport (heavy)
* Coal powered engines needed cooling
* engines were too large to for indoor or mobile uses.
* England = perfect place to implement coal power
* Lots of coal mines in England
* mines - near constantly flooded
* new coal engines would pump water out of the mines to **cool** the engines to continue production
* increased capacity of the coal engines → creation of the **Steam Engine** type of train

More Causes of the Industrial Revolution

* **Textile Industry** takes off (mainly britain) before coal stuff


* Before the industrialization, textiles = home
* The British learned how to increase production from the **Mughal Empire** - 25% of the world’s total manufacturing.
* implementation of **factory labor**
* everyone works in the factory, in the city, near other factories.
* facilitates the mass movement of people into the urban cities

Effects of the Industrial Revolution on the Social Classes

__Aristocracy__

* class that stayed the most similar
* Status came from noble names + social functions
* __Money Previous__ = Land
* __Money Now__ = Business ventures
* **Politically = Conservative + participation for only them**

__Industrial Owner Class__

* Relatively new class
* Power; influence come from their ownership of enterprises
* could buy their way into aristocracy
* wanted only rights for themselves - protection of business interests

More Effects of the Industrial Revolution on the Social Classes

__The New Middle Class__

* Very new class - means to live without working in a factory setting
* Politically Liberal - **not radical** - wants to expand voting rights and some limits on the terrible working conditions

__The Laboring Classes__

* 70-80% of urban society - reliant on next paycheck
* no rights in the workplace or in society
* Moved in huge numbers to the cities, farmers = minority
* When they gain an independent identity, they agitate for more political rights, violently.

Flying Shuttle

* greater production than hand weaving
* weaver could weave wider
* textiles!

Henry Bessemer

* figured out how to make steel inexpensively

Factory System

* The __factory__ system replaced the __domestic system__,
* individual workers used __hand tools__ or simple machinery to make goods - in homes
* use of __waterpower__ and __steam engine__ to mechanize processes such as cloth __weaving__

Luddites

* secret oath-based organization of English textile workers in the 19th century
* formed a radical faction which destroyed textile machinery
* machines were taking their jobs

Karl Marx

* Didn't like that society was controlled by profit
* Thought capitalism would inevitably fall and be replaced by communism
* Government didn’t like him - Moves to England
* Broke until Fredrick Engles shows up
* Loved Karl Marx’s theories
* Wanted to destroy capitalism

Legalizing Socialist Policies

* People liked Marx but thought he was too much
* Political parties like the labor party
* People work in capitalism to make capitalism better
* get a ton of votes and change things dramatically 
* Minimum wage 
* Maximum hours

Socialism

Trade Unions

* To try and fight for rights
* They go on strike if someone if they like is fired, etc
* Protecting the rights of workers in factories