PSYC 2301: Exam 3 Test Review

Human development

the scientific study of changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

Longitudinal design

the same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related change

Cross-sectional design

different participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences

Cross-sequential design

different participants of various ages are compared at several points in time to determine both age-related differences and changes

Nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, growth, etc.

Nurture

the influence of the environment on personality, physical and intellectual growth, etc.

Behavioral genetics

the field of study in which researchers determine how much of behavior is the result of genetic inheritance and how much is due to a person’s experience

Dominant genes

refers to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait

Recessive gene

refers to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

Fertilization

uniting of egg and sperm

Zygote

cell resulting form egg-sperm union

Monozygotic twins

one sperm fertilizes one egg, then splits into two

Dizygotic twins

two sperm, one egg

Teratogen

any factor that can cause a birth defect (drugs, diseases, environmental hazards)

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations

Temperament

behavioral characteristics established at birth

Easy

regular, adaptable, and happy

Difficult

irregular, nonadaptive, and irritable

Slow to warm up

need to adjust gradually to change

Attachment

the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

Puberty

the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak

Stages of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses, preconventional, conventional, and postconventional

Preconventional morality

consequences determine morality

Conventional morality

morality conforming to society’s norms

Postconventional morality

a person comes up with their own moral code/morality

Authoritative parenting

high love, high discipline

Authoritarian parenting

low love, high discipline

Permissive parenting

high love, low discipline

Neglectful parenting

low love, low discipline

Motivation

the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs are met

Intrinsic motivation

performing an action to receive an internal outcome (creating art, music)

Extrinsic motivation

performing an action to receive an external outcome (working to receive a paycheck)

Drive-reduction theory

behavior arises from internal drives to push the organism to satisfy physiological needs and reduce tension and arousal

Need

a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism

Drive

a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act

Primary drives

hunger, thirst, focus

Acquired (secondary drives)

the drives that are required through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval

Homeostasis

the body’s tendency to maintain an equilibrium or steady state

Need for achievement (nAch)

involves strong desire to succeed in attaining goals - both realistic and challenging

Need for affiliation (nAff)

the need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others

Need for power (nPow)

the need to have control or influence over others

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

the rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

influences the onset of eating when insulin levels drop (makes you feel hungry)

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

may be involved in stopping the eating response when glucose levels go up (makes you feel full)

Primary sex characteristics

body parts that you’re born with that are directly tied to reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

changes in the body that happen during puberty

Gender

the psychological aspects of being masculine or feminine

Gender roles

culture’s expectations for the masculine and feminine

Gender typing

acquiring gender role characteristics

Gender identity

individual’s sense of being masculine or feminine

Social Learning Theory

gender identity is formed through reinforcement of appropriate gender behavior as well as imitation of gender morals

Gender stereotypes

concept about person/group based on being male or female

Sexism

prejudice against a gender leading to unequal treatment

Benevolent sexism

acceptable of positive gender stereotypes, leading to unequal treatment

Sexual Response Cycle by Masters and Johnson

excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution

Sexual orientation

a person’s sexual attraction to and affection for members of either the opposite or the same sex

Bacterial STI

a bacterial infection, generally curable with antibiotics (chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis)

Viral STI

a viral infection, not curable (HIV/AIDS, herpes, HPV, hepatitis)

Parasitic STI

sexually transmitted bugs (public lice, trichomoniasis)

Stress

physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging

Stressors

events that cause a stress reaction

Distress

the effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors

Eustress

the effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being

Catastrophes

an unpredictable, large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat

Hassles

the daily annoyances of everyday life

Pressure

the psychological experiences produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior that came from an outside source

Personal frustration

occur when the goal/need cannot be attained because of internal or personal characteristics

External frustrations

desired goal or need is blocked by external sources; conditions such as losses, rejections, failures, and delays

Persistence

continuation of efforts to get around whatever is causing the frustration

Aggression

actions meant to harm or destroy

Approach-approach conflict

must choose between two desirable goals (win-win)

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

must choose between two undesirable goals

Approach-avoidance conflict

only one goal; must decide between more than two goals, both of which have positive and negative aspects

Sympathetic nervous system

reacts to stress

Parasympathetic nervous system

returns the body to a normal state at the end of the stress

Psychoneuroimmunology

the study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, thoughts, and behavior on the immune system

Emotion-focused coping

one changes the impact of stress by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor

Problem-focused coping

one tries to eliminate the source of a stressor to reduce its impact through direct actions