Inequality, gender, and sexuality

Test 2, set 5

What is changing in sexual and gender identity?

• Major diversification of gender/sexual identity categories

• Gender identity now separated from sexual behaviour/attraction

• Growing ideas of fluidity/plasticity — identities can change over time

• Canada’s 2022 census: 1 in 300 are transgender or non‑binary

• 2/3 of transgender/non‑binary people are under 35

What challenges shape sex research?

• Historically taboo (pre‑1960); still prone to misrepresentation

• Stigma + stagecraft affect honesty in reporting

• Method inconsistency: Interviews give more accurate data than questionnaires

• Plummer et al. (2004): 5/6 women disclosed STI‑related sexual activity in interviews, only 1/6 in questionnaires

What did Kinsey’s research reveal about public values vs private sexual behaviour?

• Studied 18,000 white Americans (1940s–50s)

• Found large gaps between public norms and private practice

• 70% of men had visited a prostitute

• 84% of men, 50% of women had premarital sexual experiences

• 40% of men expected wives to be virgins

• Higher levels of same‑sex activity than predicted

What do Lorber (1994), Wouters, and The Cass Review show about sexual and gender identities?

• Lorber (1994): Identifies 10 sexual identities + diversity within each FACTUAL

• Wouters: Dating etiquette shifts; by 1980s going dutch → changing gender relations COMPARATIVE

• Cass Review:

  • Gender diversity shaped by biological, psychological, social factors

  • Conflicting clinical approaches

  • Research often poor quality, misrepresented, overstated

What do Biological, Biological Essentialism, Sociobiological, and Structural approaches say in Theorizing Gender?

• Biological: Gender differences rooted in natural/biological traits

• Biological Essentialism: Differences come from intrinsic biological natures

• Sociobiological: Evolution + reproduction explain gender roles (e.g., male promiscuity)

• Structural: Gender binary embedded in social structure/practice (sport, physique, interaction)

What do Functionalist (Parsons) and Feminist (Liberal, Radical, Black) approaches argue in Theorizing Gender?

• Functionalist (Parsons): Sexual division of labour → expressive vs instrumental roles; complementarian roles ensure family solidarity

• Feminist: Gender roles benefit men + rely on biological essentialism

  • Liberal: Inequalities from unequal access to rights/resources

  • Radical: Inequalities from male domination in economic/social life

  • Black: Disadvantages disproportionately affect Black women

What do Interactionist and Constructionist approaches argue in Theorizing Gender?

• Interactionist: Socialization is interrupted, conflicted, and can be rejected or modified; socializing forces are opportunities, not fixed programs

• Constructionist: Gender + sexuality are constructed, explorable, changeable; challenges heteronormativity and rejects biological/naturalized roles; research shows blurred boundaries across time and cultures

What do Gender and Power, Power, Gender Order, Gender Regime, and Hegemonic Masculinity (Connell) mean?

• Gender and Power (Connell): Examines men’s socially organized dominance + patriarchal privilege

• Power: Violence, authority, ideology — can appear in personal relationships

• Gender Order: Broad patterns of power in labour, authority, sexuality

• Gender Regime: Local/small‑setting gender relations (e.g., family)

• Hegemonic Masculinity: Dominant male ideal — strong, competitive, self‑reliant, unemotional

What do Post‑Modern (Foucault) and Queer Theory argue in Theorizing Gender & Power?

• Post‑Modern (Foucault): Uses historical discourse analysis; traces the genealogy of terms like “homosexuality” within systems of power (knowledge, medicalization, criminalization)

• Queer Theory:

  • Challenges unitary identities (e.g., “woman”)

  • Treats marginalized perspectives as equally valid; celebrates otherness

  • Strict separation of gender and sexuality — both are discursive, not natural or essential

What do Sex, Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Dysphoria, Gender Expression, Gender Fluidity, Non‑Binary, and Sexual Orientation mean?

• Sex: Biological/physical traits or sexual activity

• Gender: Social, cultural, psychological traits + power relations

• Gender Identity: How someone sees/describes their own gender

• Gender Dysphoria: Distress from mismatch between identity and body

• Gender Expression: How someone shows their gender identity

• Gender Fluidity: Gender can vary over time; not fixed

• Non‑Binary: Not exclusively male/female or masculine/feminine

• Sexual Orientation: Direction of romantic/sexual attraction

What do Discourse/History of Ideas, Freedom vs Constraint, Religious Control, Medical Claims, and Consent‑Based Campaigns highlight in future sex‑research?

• Discourse/History of Ideas: Study how ideas about sexuality develop over time

• Freedom vs Constraint: Sexual activity framed as controlled, limited, avoided

• Religious Control: Moral boundaries set by authorities (Purity Culture, anti‑dating)

• Medical Claims: Health dangers + harm‑reduction strategies

• Consent‑Based Campaigns: “No means No,” anti‑harassment, #MeToo — focus on exposure, consent, protection

What does Feminization of Work explain about women’s labour force participation, part‑time work, and social/economic change?

• Women’s labour force participation rose (61.6% vs 69.7% men)

• Growth of part‑time + low‑pay jobs tied to women’s increased employment (23.8% vs 12.8% men)

• Average motherhood age increased

• Smaller families → fewer home obligations

• Economic pressures push women into paid work

• Work becomes a site of personal fulfillment

What do Occupational Meanings, Occupational Gender Segregation, 5Cs, Vertical Segregation, and Horizontal Segregation explain in Inequalities at Work?

• Occupational Meanings: Jobs become tied to cultural ideas about gender

• Occupational Gender Segregation: Women concentrated in low‑pay, routine jobs with little promotion

• 5Cs: Cleaning, catering, caring, cashiering, clerical

• Vertical Segregation: Jobs with no advancement or authority

• Horizontal Segregation: Men/women in gendered job categories (e.g., STEM)

What is gender pay gap? Is it closing in developed cou ntries?

• Is based on gender segregation but also within occupational roles, e.g., same work, but less pay

• Yes its closing

What do Housework, Unpaid Work, Industrialization, Invisibility of Domestic Work, Economic Dependency, Isolation, and Automation explain in Ann Oakley’s Work & the Domestic Sphere?

• Housework as Unpaid Work: Major sphere of unpaid labour, essential to social life

• Unacknowledged/Unrewarded: Accounts for 25–40% of wealth in industrialized countries

• Industrialization: Separates home/work → home becomes site of consumption + leisure

• Invisibility: Domestic work becomes “natural” domain of women

• Economic Dependency: Women rely financially on wage‑earning partners

• Isolation: No clear boundary between home/work; many women do both

• Automation: Appliances changed quality of work, but not quantity — expectations rose, standards increased

What do Domestic Division of Labour, Intergenerational Studies, Negotiation of Tasks, Men’s Leisure Time, Men’s Easier Tasks, and Outsourcing show in Work & the Domestic Sphere?

• Domestic Division of Labour: Changes to the nuclear family don’t automatically change who does housework

• Intergenerational Studies: Patterns of domestic labour persist across generations

• Negotiation of Tasks: Domestic task‑sharing has not kept pace with salary negotiations in the labour market

• Men’s Leisure Time: Men retain more leisure time

• Men’s Easier Tasks: Men tend to take on lighter/easier household tasks

• Outsourcing: As income rises, families outsource domestic work (cleaning, childcare, etc.