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Contemporary psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Nature vs Nurture Issue
Controversy over the contributions of genetics and experience to the development of psychological traits
Behavioral Perspective
Study of observable behavior and explaining by principles of learning
Biological Perspective
How genes combines with environment to influence individual differences. (body and brain enable emotion, memory and sensory experiences)
Cognitive psychology
study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Evolutionary psychology
Study of evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection
Psychodynamic psychology
studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior (use that info to treat people with psychological disorders)
Socio-cultural psychology
Study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
psychometrics
scientific study of measurement of human abilities, attitudes and traits
Ethical Guidlines of Psych
obtain participants' informed consent 2.Protect them from physical/emotional harm or discomfort 3.Keep info confidential
Debriefing
Debrief
Postexperimental explanation of a study (purpose and deceptions) to its participants
Scientific Attitudes
Curiosity, skepticism and humility
Scientific Method
Answer how theories advance psychological science; must have:
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational Definition (Carefully worded statement of exact procedures used in research study)
Replication
Case Studies
Technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in hopes of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic observation
observation of behavior in its natural setting
Survey
the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Amplified recording of waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. (Measured by electrodes placed on scalp)
CT scan (computed tomography)
Series of x-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by computer into a representation of brain's structure
PET scan (positron emission tomography)
Visual display of brain activoty that detects where radioactive form of glucose goes while brain performs given task
MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging)
Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissues (Show brain anatomy)
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Medulla
Base of brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus
brain's sensory control center, located on top of brainstem; directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla
Reticular formation
Nerve network that travels through brainstem and thalamus and plays important role in controlling arousal
Cerebellum
Rear of brainstem; processes sensory input, coordinating movement input and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives (hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus)
Amygdala
two lima-bean sized neural clusters in limbic system linked to emotion
Hypothalamus
Below thalamus. Directs several maintenance activities. Helps govern endocrine system through pituitary gland, linked to emotion and reward
cerebral cortex
interconnected neural cells covering cerebral hemispheres. Ultimate control and info processing center
glial cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; may also play role in learning and thinking
frontal lobes
right behind forehead; speaking, muscle movements, plans and judgements
Parietal lobes
top and towards rear of head; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobes
all the way at back of head; receive info from visual fields
temporal lobes
right above ears; includes auditory areas, each receives info from opposite ear
motor cortex
rear of frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
front of parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, speaking and thinking
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps between neurons. (Released by sending neurons, travel across synapse and bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron, influence whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.)
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
Split brain
results from surgery that isolates brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (corpus callosum) connecting them
Ernst Weber
1795-1878; Field: perception; Weber's Law: principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (Rather than a constant amount) JND
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment (what our senses detect)
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Selective Attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect (One voice instead of 20)
Absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (Necker cube)
ESP (Extrasensory perception)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition
Parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
Telepathy
Mind to mind communication
clairevoyance
perceiving remote events, such as a house on fire in another state
Precognition
perceiving future events, such as an unexpected death in the next month
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell (Laid foundation for behaviorism)
John B. Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat (Loud noise as rat was presented) HE HAD IDEA THAT HUMAN EMOTIONS AND RESPONSES ARE MAINLY CONDITIONED RESPONSES
B.F. Skinner
Designed Operant chamber (Skinner Box) The box has a bar that an animal presses to release a reward of food or water. Device that records responses. He had concept of reinforcement: any event that strengthens a preceding response
Edward L. Thorndike
Widely known for the law of effect- the principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is unlikely to recur. This principle was the basis for BF Skinner's behavioral technology.
Albert Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Pavlov's study
measured dogs' salivary responses to the presentation of food
Watson's work
Human emotions are mostly conditioned responses. Study with little albert. White rat in front of him but banged steel behind his head, became afraid of rat.
Skinner Box
small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised (rat presses bar for food reward.)
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing desired response every time it occurs
partial reinforcement (intermittent)
reinforcing a response only part of the time (Slower acquisition of response but greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement)
Fixed-ratio schedule
reinforces a response only after a specified number of reponses
variable-ratio schedule
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified time elapsed
variable-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Paul Broca and Broca's area
controls language expression- area of frontal lobe in left hemisphere, controls muscle movements involved in speech
Hermann Ebbinghaus
experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. Distributed practice
Short-term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before info is stored or forgotten (Lucky # 7)
Long-term memory
Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system. Knowledge, skills and experiences
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Mood congruency
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good mood or bad mood
Prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. (Comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird)
algorithm
a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem, always a success. Slower but more reliable than heruistics
Heuristics
shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer
Mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"
Homeostasis
Tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state
Incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. (Lebron)
Set point
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
James-Lange Theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (See a bear, heart rate goes up, we feel scared)
Cannon-Bard Theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion (Fear and responses occur simultaneously)
Hierarchy of needs order
Physiologic
Safety & Security
Love & Belongingness
Esteem
Self-Actualization
Jean Piaget
Theory of cognitive devlopment. Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. Grow through interaction with physical environment
Lev Vygotsky
most famous for social development theory (of child cognitive development) Zone of proximal devlopment. Believed language was important part of developing
Konrad Lorenz
researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting. We look after first person we see after birth
Harry Harlow
Did the experiment with monkey mothers. Showed taht we like human touch. Monkeys preferred cloth mother over the wire mother even when it had food
Albert Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
Lawrence Kohlberg
Came up with 3 moral development stages. The first is Pre-conventional (acted whether they would gain rewards or punishment). The second is conventional morality (actions that uphold social rules in intent to be liked by others and gain approval). The third is post-conventional (abstract reasoning for their actions)
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
Critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information