psych semester 1

Biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory reseptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

myelin sheath

A lack of this is attributed to Multiple Sclerosis.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to reseptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within" - natural . opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on th scalp.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans, fMRI shows brain functions

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular activating system

a nerve netowrk in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum amd medulla - all senses, but smell are processed here

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output an balance

limbic system

doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to raw emotions such as fear and anger

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp). helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward (think 4 F's!!)

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural calles covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center

glial cells

cells in the nervour system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; received sensory input for touch and body postion

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, includes areas that receive information from visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex (somatosensory cortex)

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in promary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions ssuch as learning, remembering, , thinking, and speaking

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's Area (impairing speaking) or Wernicke's Area (impairing understanding)

Broca's Area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reogranizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none principle

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

agonists

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action - it mimics the neurotransmitter

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage (conscious) memories of facts and events

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction.

adoption study

A research design that investigates the relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the development of personality, behavior, or disorder by comparing the similarities of biological parent-child pairs with those of adoptive parent-child pairs.

adrenaline

A hormone whose major action is to increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing a surge of energy to power our fight-or-flight respose.

biological psychologists

Researchers who use advanced technologies to study the links between genetic, neural, and hormonal with psychological processes.

contralateral hemispheric organization

The arrangement whereby each hemisphere is mainly responsible for the information of the opposite side of the body.

cortex specialization

The tendency for one side or area of the brain to carry out specific brain activities. Even though both sides of the brain are almost identical, one hemisphere primarily carries out some functions over others.

depolarization

The process leading up to the height of action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

eugenics

A much-criticized nineteenth-century movement that proposed measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce

evolutionary psychology

An approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges.

excitatory

The function of a neurotransmitter which results in a greater likelihood of an action potential.

executive function

Higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, effortful and persistent goal pursuit, inhibition of competing impulses, flexibility in goal selection, and goal-conflict resolution.

family study

Research conducted among siblings, parents, or children to assess evidence for genetic links for characteristics or outcomes, often related to health or disease.

GABA

Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter; regulates daily sleep-wake cycles.

genetic predisposition

A tendency for certain traits to be inherited, including physical and mental conditions and disorders.

ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone.

glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.

heredity

The transmission of traits from parents to their offspring.

higher-order thinking

Cognitive processes that involve critical thinking, problem-solving, analysis, evaluation, and creativity. It goes beyond rote memorization or simple recall of information and requires individuals to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate knowledge to solve complex problems and make informed decisions.

inhibitory

The function of a naturally occuring chemical which results in a reduced likelihood of an action potential.

left hemisphere

The part of the brain that receives somatosensory signals from and controls muscles on right side of body, controls the facial muscles that allow us to produce speech, and enables us to understand spoken word.

leptin

A hunger-suppressing hormone.

linguistic processing

The cognitive activities involved in understanding and producing language. It encompasses various processes such as perceiving speech sounds, comprehending word meanings, constructing grammatically correct sentences, and conveying thoughts through speech or writing.

melatonin

A hormone produced mainly by the pineal gland that is implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.

multiple sclerosis

A disease due to the degeneration of the myelin sheath in which communication to muscles and brain regions slow, resulting in diminished muscle control and sometimes impaired cognition.

myasthenia gravis

A neuromuscular disease in which the muscles cannot contract, resulting in muscle weakness, difficulties with muscle control, or paralysis.

natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations.

nature

The innate, presumably genetically determined, characteristics and behaviors of an individual. In psychology, the characteristics most often and traditionally associated with nature are temperament, body type, and personality.

neural transmission

The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon, releasing neurotransmitters across the synaptic space to a receiving neuron.

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that helps control alterness and arousal. An undersupply can lead to a depressed mood.

nurture

The totality of environmental factors that influence the development and behavior of a person, particularly sociocultural and ecological factors such as family attributes, parental child-rearing practices, and economic status.

oxytocin

A hormone which enables orgasm, and in a pregnant person, labor contractions and milk flow while nursing.

prefrontal cortex

Located at the very front of the brain, this part functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviors; its development in humans parallels improvement in cognitive control and behavioral inhibition as an individual grows into adulthood.

reflex arc

A neural circuit that is involved in a self-regulated response between the central and peripheral nervous systems.

resting potential

The state of a neuron when it's not being stimulated or sending signals.

reuptake inhibitor

Substance that interferes with the transport of released neurotransmitter molecules back into the presynaptic terminal, boosting the effects of that neurotransmitter.

reward center

Any of various areas of the brain (including areas of the hypothalamus and limbic system) that, upon intracranial stimulation), have been implicated in producing pleasure.

right hemisphere

The part of the brain that receives somatosensory signals from and controls muscles on left side of body, enables us to recognize faces and the emotion in facial expressions, as well as our ability to maniupulate 2-D and 3-D environments.

serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

somatosensory cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

Substance p

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception and immune response.

threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

twin study

Research with the purpose of assessing the relative contributions of heredity and environment to some attribute. Characteristics of identical and fraternal twins and comparing twins of both types who have been reared together or reared apart.

Cultural norms

The societal norms, values, and expectations that influence behavior and mental processes.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Hindsight bias

The inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there being little or no objective basis for predicting it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to have more confidence in one's own abilities or knowledge than is objectively reasonable.