geopolitics exam

Aristotle (IV b.Ch.)

the dependencies between the population and the territory; the most important state subjects are: capital, army, borders, climate.

Strabon (I b.Ch.)

Greek philosopher, ethnocentric, he argued his homeland had the best natural conditions and technique of governance (Roman Empire)

Abd al-Rahman ibn Chaldun (XIV)

introduced theory of the most powerful political countries which can rise and fall (theory of cyclical developments of states),  a country which is a vital one can attack other countries (political integration), when it falls (disintegration face)

Montesquieu (XVIII)

noticed the importance of landscape and climate.

William Petty (XVII)

here are stable factors that impact the world (determinism),  make it impossible for a country to develop if it doesn’t have conditions for that 

George Buffon (XVIII)

the requirements and conditions of geographical problems can be overruled by human will - so the development doesn’t depend on them, but on the social factors (indeterminism)

Immanuel Kant (XVIII)

political geography is a science of states and their geographical conditions.

Carl Ritter (XIX)

came back to the theory of cyclical development of states

Rationalist indeterminism (French possibilism)

state is an expression of human's will. State and its borders are created by a govermenent

Determinism (3 examples)

God's will or Nature's will make an order in the world

German Friedrich Ratzel - compared a state to a human body that needs living space (Lebensraum) and raw materials like countries. He presented 7 laws of state development (population, terrotioarial growth, absorpstion of small units, borders, looking for smll units, move towards worse civilized territories, expanding makes more expantion). The concepts of location (Lage) and area (Raum) play a significant role in his theory.

Rudolf Kjellen - theory of a biological and organic nature of a state. States constantly compete. Larger countries extend power over smaller ones. Krato-, socio-, ethno-, eco-, geopolitics.

Karl Haushofer (1919)

• gave fertile ground for Nazi propaganda [he committed suicide after IIWW]

• Institut für Geopolitik (German chauvinism)

1927, a definition of a new scientific discipline was presented:

"geopolitics is the science of geographical limitations of political phenomena. As a science of political space constraint and its structure, it extensively uses methods of geographical sciences"

Alfred T. Mahan

XIX/XX centry

emphasized the role of the sea in the life of the state. 6 elelements of naval power: location, shape of a country, territorial extent, population, nation, governance.

from perspective from US - impact on Roosevelt, UN + good government → thought that Russia and UK will have a conflict in the future [it was geopolitical attitude - however he didn’t mention it per se]

naval history, Euroasia as main land of rivarly, concept of Island state, Pacitfic Ocean as own watr of anglo-saxon world

Sir. Halford John Mackinder

Asia, Europe and Africa are the Heartland while the USA, Japan, G. Britain are outside. Hertland rules the world. „Who rules E.E., rules Heartland. Who rules H., rules the Island of the world. Who rules I.W., rules the world".

didn’t mention geopolitics → criticised Mahan, since in his opinion the land/soil/continent which would help the country become the global power, not only the sea

theory of World Island, railway transport, Europe between wars, 1943-changes in his theory

Nicholas Spykman

the outskirts of Eurasia are most important for the world, airspace

Alexander Siewierski

expansion of the air force

2 global empires (US & USSR) - owned countries to control, important to have a balance between theses 2 countries in order to world to develop

Saul Bernard Cohen

the importance of the balance of power between the USA and USSR during the Cold War. After World War II the world system was disturbed as a result of the creation pf regional forces, so the main strength is to be played by the USA and USRR.

Nato powers gave stability and security - secure economy was the most important problem

Karl Deutsch

• influenced the thinking of social sciences in 20th century

• later on, created a new trend which can be seen in geopolitics,

• underlined the importance of transfer of information - importance for political authorities to run politics internally and externally – anticipated that using different tools of information to communicate and development of technology will change the world 

Methods of political geography and geopolitics

•  using the economical methods to analyse economic situation of the countries

• social perspective - analysing the state from social groups perspectives f.e ethnic groups, nations

• methods of analysing the tensions and conflicts of the world 

• understanding the ideologies that influence how the state is rules

• environmental problems 

• analysis of human right in the world - how are they respected or disrespected by different states

changes on political map (short perspective - 7)

1. The antiquity; the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians, the Greeks, then the Romans explored the world.

2. In the Middle Ages: the Chinese, the Vikings.

3. First modern discoveries: a) the discovery of America in 1492, b) the trip of Vasco da Gama to India in 1498, c) the first trip around the world Magellan 1519-1522.

4. From XVth century European countries started to conquer the world: Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, England, France.

5. In XIXth century the United States, Japan and Germany (+Russia) joined the rivarly over conquering the world.

6. After World War I, many new countries emerged. The process of desintegration of colonial empires began. (Treaty of Versailles)

7. After World War II the world was divided: socialist versus capitalist countries. New countries were created after the collapse of colonialism. (Yalta Conference 1945)

perception of political map

The perception field is the result of interactions of various factors, consisting of: cultural level, accepted values, motivations, goals, participation.

Memory or imaging maps are based on the individual perception of the world.

The direction of the orientation depends on the cultural conditions, especially related to ethnocentrism.

Geographic language is full of expressions of type: middle, far, middle, upper ...

There were and still are propaganda maps, they play an important role in attempting to manipulate public opinion.

STATE (elements, functions, division)

The most important state elements are (1) territory, (2) population and (3) sovereign power. (Georg Jelinek)

The state functions are: internal (administrative, economic, cultural, educational, security), external (relations with other states, security).

The states can be divided regarding:

1. The system territorial status: unitary (centralized and decentralized: administrative and self-government) and federal countries (US, Austria)

2. The form of governance: monarchy and republic. And they can be divided: parliamentary-governemental states, 2) presidential states, 3) convention states.

3. Political regime: democratic and non-democratic (authoritarian and totalitarian)

NATION

There are three main tendencies to define the nation:

1) nation as a spiritual and cultural community,

2) nation as a social and political phenomenon,

3) nation as a historical community.

Stages of development of the national issue:

1) End of XVIIIth century - half of XIXth century,

2) End of XIXth century - beginning of XXth century,

3) After World War II.

The concepts which are associated with the nation: patriotism, nationalism, internationalism [ when patriotism is fuelled by kindness, tolerance, respect to help and understand other nations] cosmoplitanism, multiculturalism (2 politics of the authority towards ethinical groups, 2 forms of developments of state of ethnical groups)

4 forms of relations in multicultural societies

1. state imposes the cooperation between the group - authorities make it easier to gradually approach one group to another (tolerance, understanding, mutual, trust, respect) → produces cultural richnesses 

2. Authorities established and favours the dominant group - dominant group has privileges, but other groups are trying to assimilate with the group - authority favourites assimilation, however 

3. separatism - only rights of dominant group can exist - they have rights to do every thing, and other groups has to use and obey their rules 

4. almost totally / totally destroy the other nations - the groups are too small to have rights

terriotorial dimension of state

size (very large f.e Russia/Canada, large f.e France/Mexico, medium f.e UK, Poland, small f.e Netherlands, very small f.e Monaco, Burundi)

shape:

• countries with an elongated shape - Chile, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Togo, Gambia, Italy, Panama,

• compact countries: Poland, Germany,

• countries with a split territory

  • Exclave = is a part of a territory of another countries which is surrounded by a territory of another state, but doesn’t constitute a political authority, f.e Kalinigrad)

• regular sape with penninsulas or islands

• Enclave = is a state territory or a part of it which is surrounded by a large territory of another state, f.e San Mario

borders

Borders - created to separate the territory between states

borders - also include airspace / air borders

• natural  (mountains, rivers, shores, lakes)

• contracted (a contract/agreement was done to establish them)

• geometric (like lines - f.e African Border)

• national (not connected with natural borders, but developed with long historical process)
  

border dispute – very problematic problem in geopolitics

capital cities

• reflects weathness of a country and is a central headquarter of political and administrative powers,

• is identified with a country.

• plays important role in the country and nation development.

The historical development of a capital city:

• architecure: big buildings with representative functions,

• more and more people inhabited capital cities in the past and today,

• modern innovations comes first to capital cities,

types:

• permanent,

• established,

• divided (two towns play a role of capital [parliament is the Hague, the crown resides in Amsterdam)

Geopolitics

examines the system of national and international relations from a geographical point of view, studies the influence of geography on world politics.

classical geopolitics

relations between physical geography and political system.

According to Saul Cohen up till the break of the IWW geopolitics developed on the field of theories of thinkers who praised their own state's interests.

Between the wars the German school dominated.

After the IIWW geopolitics developed in the Western World and was focused on the Cold War.

After 1990 geopolitics is a complicated and multi-leveled discipline.

Role of geography

location (absolute and relative)

place

human (among others, political)

physical geography

German imperialism

1. The way leading to imperialism: Herodotus, Artistotle (ancien times), Heinrich von Bulow (XVIIIth century), XIXth century (Crimean War, social Darwinism, Friedrich Ratzel).

2. Germany, 1871 unification, Bismarck, Wilhelm II, pact with Russia in 1887, reapprochement with Austro-Hungary, international treaties in the end of XIXth century.

3. Rudolf Kjellen. (introduced geopolitics)

4. Defeat and the Versaille treaty.

5. Karl Haushofer: the concept of Lebensraum, expansionism (4 reasons), German expansion on the East.

Isiah Bowman

negative description of IWW, influence on Fourteen Points Plan of Woodrow Wilson

Anglo-saxon geopolitics

Mackinder (heartland), Mahan (sea), Bowman, Spykman (air)

Geostrategy

• is leading an army

• is connected with management (tactics - offensive or defensive, series of elements that must e accomplishment)

historical understanding of Antoine Jomini and Carl von Clausewitz

Antonie Jomini → bringing military forces to the batter field to conduct military operations and conquering geographical points

Carl von Clausewitz → is the essence / most important point of the war, strategy is doctrine of battles, and having objectives of war, connection between tactical and strategical elements, connected with the plan which is later proceeded during the war

Current understanding: Department of US defence

created in the post Cold-War era, it differentiates 3 types of 

1. strategy - is art of science which operates all national power forces 

2. national strategy - nation's power to achieve its own objectives / national goals

3. military strategy - art of science where state or nation wants to use all objectives by using military force and threatening others by possible use of the forces

importance of geographical conditions on geostrategy:

• jungle, forest, rivers, lakes etc. 

• rivers when frozen were used 

• distance between the powers

• size of the country - f.e. Russia’s big size made other countries reluctant

L. Peltier & G. Etzel Pearcy’s six factors of the relations between geography and strategy

1. accessibility - evaluation of ability to select roads and days just to go to another one to reach the destination

2. mobility - total transport capacity which can be taken over earlier selected roads and ways, f.e how many soldiers, how fast, what would be effect, organisational problem

3. visibility - total site capability that depend on the site climate conditions, f.e how to make camouflage; affects movement and target recognition

4. communication - possibility of broadcasting and receiving information through electronic means 

5. availability - presence of man power, weapons, soldiers at the right place and at the right time with right quantities - how to organise it all to conduct a war 

6. vulnerability - military’s ability to hurt the enemy and enemy’s ability to hurt military

development of weapons in history to influence strategy of states

• Middle Age, the Hundered Years' War (French) - → raise in the superiority of infantry over cavalry → English Bowman were more effective and flexible than heavy cavalry → ended the importance of heavy cavalry → gunpowder

• Europe and XVIth century & XVIIthe century → resulted in the developments of f.e. fortification

• Michael Roberts differentitaion of the new tools from the old ones → stated that it was connected of infantry, increase in the size of armies, the search of the syzyf battle and rising of military administration and bureaucracy

• critics from Geoffrey Parker → stated that the most important were the technological and tactical changes, these 2 centuries were the start for new fortification system and introduction of artylery, fear of war moved to waters more than before - the new naval technology was connected by colonialism so it started to move to other continents 

• concept of Jeremy Black → military revolution was connected with the creation of a gun, the infantry was move flexible, the cavalry didn’t have to protect it, formation of larger armies were starting to be more important,

• concept of Clifford Rogers → fortification revolution

• concept of Thomas Arnold → Ottoman Empire and their conquer of Europe - technological and engeeinrg superiority in the military over the countries 

development of airpower

G. Douhet (1921) → air force creates a totally new conception of war, because thery are independence of geographical innovation [to coś jeszcze powinno być] - air force can be given strategic bombings mission, aircraft should be the priority of the war, proved to be correct during IIWW and after

examples: 2nd World War and the USA use of the airbone: the China-Burma-India theater showed how important was aircraft. + The Vietnam War and the renewal of airbone tactics + Panama (1989) and Kuwait (1991).

UN - 1. Road to the establishment of the United Nations

• 1943-1945,

• New system of security,

• Works on the Charter,

• Two organs: the Security Council and General Assembly,

• veto

• Socio-economic problems

2. First problems of the UN

• Korean War [moving from diplomatic pressure to being more invloved in solving the problems - Soviets boycotted the Security Council]

• Chinese Representation [represented by Taiwan + Western Block had majority because Communist China didnt’t at first in Securtiy Council]

• Ending the era of colonialism (Indonesia, Palestine, Kahmir),

• Congo.

3. Preventive diplomacy and peacekeeping

- armed services

- lightly armoured

- functions of peacekeeping

4. The UN between 1960-1980

- emergence of importance ot the Third World (decolonization)

- anticolonialism,

- racial discrimination (South Africa [introduced complete racial segregation - in 1961 aparheid was condemendes as a violetion of the charter, constanlty criticized for it] and Rhodesia [in 1961 because of illegal racism minority regime, in 1968 at UK request UN declared total trade ban of Rhodesia])

- New International Economic Order (before Association in 1960 UN created it provide loans to third world countries, in April 1974 GA demanded to create it)

- General Assembly (1. private level, permament missions, 2.public level - countries had campaigns) and Security Council, (more problems were moved to Security Council [5 countries], plan of US, non permament members saw their representatives as unable to benefit from their competences)

- territorial problems (India-Pakistan war [Bangladesh], Cyprus [UN could do nothing, was dispatched in 1964, up till 70s UN did humanitarian work, but after Turkish invasion in 1974, could do nothing], Kashimr [call to cease fire in Kashmir, Soviet prime minister signed peace treaty], Middle East (67 + 73 Wars → Egypt and Israel wanted to maintain stability and cooperate and with the help of UN they reached it (Camp David Agreement 1968 + Egipitain-Isareli peace Treaty).

5. UN in 1980s

Problems that prolonged into the 1980s:

• religious revolution in Iran (Homeini as a leader)

• invasion of the Soviet in Afghanistan

• fighting between China and Vietnam (US vs Soviet Union)

Ronald Reagan’s presidency (two terms - conservative) → lost of US interest in UN 

• US found UN useful → especially for letting SG

• but US’ patience with snapping and snarling underdogs in the General Assembly had run out

• in 1982 US lost site in 24 out of 150 resolutions → in 19 of them, US was entering alone, or sometimes joined by Israel

• Ronald Reagan’s administration saw UN as a troublesome sideshow

• even US European allies didn't support American intervention in Granada in 1983

• Sometimes Poland sided more with US than Mexico in the 1980s

→ GA condemned Soviet presence in Afghanistan

→ called for withdrawal for the conflict between China and Vietnam (supporting Vietnamese)

• US started to resolve matters by itself without the UN → in 1985 US contribution was reduced from almost 30% to 20% of the budget → rolling on, in 1986 US paid only about 12% of the budget to UN

• up till the end of 80s, because of USSR and US tensions, US lost interest in UN as an organisation which could solve problems of the world

UN main organs

• General Assembly,

• Security Council (presidency of council is rotating)

• Economic and Social Council (elected by general assembly)

• Trusteeship Council (1945) - to provide international supervisions for trust territories, but after they gained independence - ended)

• International Court of Justice ( to settle in accordance legal disputes and give legislators advice to nations)

• Secretariat with Secretary General (representative of UN) - the well recognised person from UN)

examples of agencies

FAO - The Food and Agriculture Organization

ICAO - The International Civil Aviation Organization

ILO - The International Labor Organization

IMF - The International Monetary Fund

IMO - The International Maritime Organization

ITU - The International Telecommunication Union

UNESCO - The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Org

anization

WHO - The World Health Organization

beginning of EU - Treaty of Paris

establishing treaty, signed on 18 April 1951, founded the European Coal and Steel Community

Treaties of Rome

signed 25 March 1957, into force: 1 January 1958, established:

• EURATOM: peaceful use of nuclear energy

• EEC: -the elimination of customs duties between Member States;

  - the establishment of an external Common Customs Tariff;

  - the introduction of common policies for agriculture and transport;

  - the creation of a European Social Fund;

  - the establishment of a European Investment Bank;

  - the development of closer relations between the Member States.

Merger Treaty (Treaty of Brussels)

8 April 1965, merged the executive bodies setting up a single Council and Commission of the European Communities (the ECSC, EEC and EAEC) and introducing the principle of a single budget.

The new role of the Parliament

1970 - gained some budgetary powers;

1975 - got right to reject therbudget,

1976 - election by direct univeral suffrage.

70s (EC)

financial reform, European Monetary System

Single European Act

17 February 1986, enlarged internal market, new powers and responisibility, growth of the role of the parliament

Maastrich Treaty

• 7 February 1992

• instituting the European Union that was based on the European Communities introdueced a single institutional structure, consisting of the Council, the European Parliament, the European Commission, the Court of Justice and the Court of Auditors.

• Three pillars: European Community, foreign and security policy, justice and home affairs.

• The Council and Parliament became co-legislators, closer cooperation of the countries, simplification of law.

Amsterdam Treaty

2 October 1997, increased powers for the EU: a balanced and sustainable development and a high level of employment coordination, asylum, immigration, crossing external borders, combating fraud, customs cooperation and judicial cooperation in civil matters. Increased the role of the Parliament.

Treaty of Nice

28 February 2001

• number of institutional issues were not satisfactorily

• resolved by previous treaties as the size and composition of the Commission, weighting of votes in the Council, and extension of qualified majority voting.

• The number of votes was increased for all Member States, but the share accounted for by the most populous Member States decreased from 55% of votes to 45%

• since 2005 the Commission has comprised one Commissioner per Member State.

• The Council has the power to decide, acting unanimously, on the number of Commissioners.

• Parliament was enabled, like the Council, the Commission and the Member States, to bring a legal challenge to acts of the Council, the Commission or the European Central Bank.

• Reform of the judicial system: the Court of Justice of the European Union.

Treaty of Lisbon

13 December 2007,

• The term Community is replaced by Unions as its legal successor.

• contains no article formally enshrining the supremacy of Union law over national legislation.

• It distinguishes three types of competences: exclusive competence, shared competence, and supporting competence.

• Treaty for the first time provides for a formal procedure to be followed by Member States wishing to withdraw.

• The European Parliament is able to propose amendments to the Treaties, as was already the case for the Council, a Member State government or the Commission.

• expresses the three fundamental principles of democracy.

• The Structure: Parliament, European Council, the Council of the EU, the Commission, the Court of Justice of the EU.

Nato (signed, beginning, precoursors treaties, countries)

• has its roots in the Atlantic Charter, a 1941 agreemen between the United States and United Kingdom.

• The Treaty of Brussels was a mutual defense treaty against the Soviet threat at the start of the Cold War. It was signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom (the Western Union 1948, later to become the Western European Union in 1954).

• The two acts were the precursors to NATG.

• The North Atlantic Treaty was signed on 4 April, 1949.

• In the Treaty's renowned Article 5, the new Allies agreed "an armed attack against one or more of them ... shall be considered an attack against them all,,

• Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States (12)

• Greece and Tukrey in 1952, and West Germany in 1955 joined NATO

Nato in the 1950s

• adopted the strategic doctrine of "Massive Retaliation" - if the Soviet Union attacked, NATO would respond with nuclear weapons.

• The intended effect of this doctrine was to deter either side from risk- taking since any attack, however small, could have led to a full nuclear exchange.

Nato in the 1960s

• between the USA and USSR one observed the détente, a relaxation of tensions between the Western and Eastern blocs driven by a grudging acceptance of the status quo.

• France announced its intention to withdraw from NATO, but then repeated its intention to stand together with its Allies. This situation was repeated.

NATO in the ends of 1980s /1990s

• Soviet Communism had lost the intellectual battle with the West. The Warsaw Pact were disintegrating. NATO endured.

• In December 1991, the Allies established the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, renamed the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1997.

• In 1994, the Alliance founded the Mediterranean Dialogue with six non-member Mediterranean countries.

• Allies created the Partnership for Peace programme, or PfP, in 1994. The Partnership for Peace allowed non-NATO countries.

• By the end of 1998, over 300 000 Kosovar Albanians had fled their homes during conflict between Albanian separatists in Kosovo and Serbian military and police and NATO started its actions.

  • On 4 June 1999, NATO suspended rits air campaign after confirming that a withdrawal of the Serbian army from Kosovo.

• In 1999 the Alliance adopted a new Strategic Concept describing the Alliance's purpose and priorities since the end of the Cold War, the world had come to face "complex new risks to Euro-Atlantic peace and security, including oppression, ethnic conflict, economic distress, the collapse of political order, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

acession of former communist countries

• reached an important milestone at the 1999 Washington Summit when three former Partners - Czechia, Hungary and Poland - took their seats as full Alliance members.

• Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia were the members in 2004,

• in 2009 Albania and Croatia,

• 2017 Montenegro,

• 2020 North Macedonia.

challenges in beginning of XXI century

1. 9/11 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon demonstrated to the Allies that political disorder in distant parts of the globe could have terrible consequences at home. For the first time in its history, NATO invoked its collective defence clause (Article 5).

2. Then the Istanbul bombings in November 2003

3. the attack of the Madrid commuter train system on 11 March 2004

4. the attack on the public transport system in London on 7 July 2005 made NATO be more alert.

5. NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002.

6. For instance, much of the world's attention in 2011 was focused on the crisis in Libya where NATO played a crucial role in helping to protect civilians.

7. Russia's illegal annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its unjustified and unprovoked attack on Ukraine are a sobering reminder of the importance of NATO's core task: collective defence.

structure of NATO

• complex and multi-faceted

• The decision-making body = North Atlantic Council (NAC)

• the member state representatives also sit on the Defence Policy and Planning Committee (DPPC) and the Nuclear Planning Group (NPG).

• Below that the Secretary General of NATO directs the civilian International Staff, that is divided into administrative divisions, offices and other organizations.

• NATO Military Committee advises and assists the NAC on military matters.

• The Defence Planning Committee which directs its output to the Division of Defence Policy and Planning, a nominally civilian department that works closely with the Military Committee's International Military Staff.

Visegrad Group (reasons, aim, phases)

reasons of the V4 foundation:

• after the collapse of communism, the Polish, Czecholsovak and Hungarian foreign policies attached special attention to regional cooperation in Central Europe

• Regional cooperation, which the V4 promotes, hlps overcome historical and cultural cleavages, enables the exchanging of ideas and the transfer of them from one country to another.

The V4 went through four phases:

1. from the formation of mutual relations between 1991 and 1993,

2. through discontinuation of political cooperation between 1993 and 1999,

3. to the revival of cooperation after 1999 and cooperation embedded by the NATO and the EU membership.

first phase (V4)

• On 15 February 1991, the president of Poland, Lech Wałesa, the president of Czechoslovakia, Václav Havel, and prime minister of Hungary, József Antall, signed the Visegrad Declaration on cooperation between the countries which founded the Visegrad Triangle.

• The organisation aspired to introduce the free market and transfer of goods as well as exchange political experiences in the process of integration with the European Economic Community (EEC) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

• The Visegrad Triangle countries decided to establish CEFTA in 1992 to accelerate the transfer of goods and to overcome limitations to free trade.

• In 1991, two organisations consolidating the Eastern Block were liquidated: the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the military Warsaw Pact. Soviet soldiers left Hungary and Czechoslovakia in 1991, and Poland in 1993.

• On 16 December 1991, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia signed association agreements with the European Economic Community (EEC).

second phase (v4)

• After 1993 (the same year when Czechoslovakia split), the V4 countries experienced a discontinuation of cooperation and they started to think of individual accession processes.

• In December 1992, EEC announced in Edinburgh that the enlargingl negotiations with the Visegrad Triangle countries would be managed individually.

• NATO followed the example of EEC and offered the Central European countries only a partial form of cooperation in 1991.

• In 1994, NATO offered another form of distant cooperation, the Partnership for Peace, which did not include membership.

• After the EEC and NATO decisions regarding the need to meet the accession criteria, the governments of V4 countries were afraid of being removed from power if they did not attain membership in a few years' time.

third phase (v4)

• progressing process of approaching membership in the EU and NATO of the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland, made it clear that rivalry among these countries was useless and brought about a revival of active cooperation among the countries

• After the accession to NATO from March 12, 1999, of Poland, Hungary and Czech Republic, on 14 May 1999, the prime ministers of the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Poland met in Bratislava and officially renewed regional cooperation and goals were set in the Bratislava Declaration.

• Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary were a pupil of democratisation. Slovakia’s elections were won by populist and nationalist party, it ruled till 1998. He preferred isolationism and was not interested with NATO/EU partnership. He wanted to do business. It became the member of NATO and EU in 2004. 

fourth phase (v4)

After the 2004 accession to the EU the V4 was treated as a regional platform that could help strengthen the CEE position in the EU.

The Polish authorities perceived sometimes the V4 as the organistation to realize own national interest in the EU and NATO.

International Visegrád Found

•  international donor organization promoting development and closer cooperation among the Visegrád Group (V4). The main aim of the fund is to strengthen the ties among peoples and institutions in Central and Eastern Europe through giving support to regional non-governmental initiatives. 

v4 topics now (neighbours)

• EU started to allocate - included Eastern Europe policy 

• Eastern partneship was to facilitate train development, spreading democracy

neighbours

• Russia

  • was always seen as an aggressive agent 

  • Slovakia and Czech Republic rather see Russia neutraly, now Czech Republic sees it as an aggressor, but Slovakia is not strictly against it, sees it as a good economical partner

  • Hungary - Victor Orban supports Russia

• Ukraine

  • more geopolitical value for Poland, than other countries

  • after the invasion, Poland was the most active in helping migrants

  • Slovakia supports in a way Russia, but Ukraine and Slovakia’s government hold meetings

  • Czech Republic also took in migrants, but before the war, it was the first country with a population of Ukraine

• Belarus (most interesting country for Poland - because of the neighbourhood)

• Moldova (the most important for Hungary, not other countries - Hungary competes with Romania)

• Caucasus Republics (Azerbejdżan - because of oil, Georgia - supported by Poland)

• the Balkans (supporting the Balkan countries with accession to EU + Hungary wants to realise its own interest down there)

v4 military and security

v4 Battlegroup in Eu:

• depended on oil on Russia (Slovakia and Hungary)

• 2009 gas - urged them to look for other sources of oil 

2011 - own central European battle group was presented by Poland

2014 - the battle group consists of thousands of soldiers, which help secure the Eastern European Region

v4 institutionalisation

• very loose structure - no offices - no stable bureaucratic agencies

• Meetings of the head of the countries, meeting of ministers, prime ministers

• rotating 1 year presidency

• International Visegrad Found

  • an international donor organization promoting development and closer cooperation among the Visegrád Group (V4) countries—the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. The main aim of the fund is to strengthen the ties among peoples and institutions in Central and Eastern Europe through giving support to regional non-governmental initiatives.