PSY 1.4 Cognition, consciousness and language

thought

is more than just that of which we are conscious. The brain processes and makes decisions about the importance of various stimuli below the level of conscious awareness.

information processing model

states that the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer.

1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli.

2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making.

3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification).

4. Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem.

dual coding theory

states that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store more information

cognitive development

The ability to think abstractly develops over the life span. Early cognitive development is limited by brain maturation. Culture, genes, and environment also influence cognitive development.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. concrete operational

4. formal operational

schema

can include a concept (eg what is a dog?),

a behaviour (what do you do when someone asks you your name?)

or a sequence of events (what do you normally do in a sit-down restaurant?)

adaptation

comes about by 2 complementary processes

1. assimilation (classifying new information into existing schemata)

2. accommodation (process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information)

sensorimotor

0-2 years

 focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions (for repetitive behaviour). Object permanence ends this stage.

object permanence

the understanding that object continue to exist even when out of view

preoperational 

2-7 years

focuses on symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.

egocentrism

refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

centration

which is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of phenomenon

concrete operational

7-11 years

focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects.

formal operational

12 and beyond

focuses on abstract thought and problem solving.

hypothetical thinking

A mild level of cognitive decline while aging is normal; significant changes in cognition may signify an underlying disorder.

Biological factors that affect cognition include organic brain disorders, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and drug use

fluid intelligence

consists of solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods. Figuring out how to navigate through a new video game world involves the usage of fluid intelligence.

peaks in early childhood and declines with age

crystallised intelligence

is more related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, and often can be procedural. 

peaks in middle adulthood and remains stable with age

delirium

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes

Problem solving

requires identification and understanding of the problem, generation of potential solutions, testing of potential solutions, and evaluation of results.

mental set 

is a pattern of approach for a given problem. An inappropriate mental set may negatively impact problem solving.

Functional fixedness

is the tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem solving.

Types of problem solving 

include trial-and-error, algorithms, deductive reasoning (deriving conclusions from general rules), and inductive reasoning (deriving generalizations from evidence).

algorithm

a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

deductive reasoning

(top down)

starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given

inductive reasoning

(bottom up)

create a theory via generalisation

Heuristics, biases, intuition, and emotions may assist decision making but may also lead to erroneous or problematic decisions.

heuristics

are shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions.

availability heuristic

used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind.

representative heuristic

involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

biases

exist when an experimenter or decision maker is unable to objectively evaluate information.

disconfirmation principle

the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

confirmation bias

the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

hindsight bias

which is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened

intuition

is a “gut feeling” regarding a particular decision. However, intuition can often be attributed to experience with similar situations.

emotion

subjective experience of a person in a certain situation

multiple intelligences

Gardner’s theory 

proposes at least eight areas of intelligence including: linguistic, logical–mathematical, musical, visual–spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

interpersonal intelligence

the ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivations of others

theory of emotional intelligence

addresses our emotional awareness in four components:

1. the ability to express and perceive emotions in ourself and others

2. the ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions

3. the ability to regulate our emotions

4. awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions

   Empathy is often given as an example of

emotional intelligence because empathy requires individuals to understand their own emotions well enough to recognize those emotions in other people.

g factor

a single underlying factor, often referred to as general intelligence, can account for the positive correlations among cognitive abilities

Variations in intellectual ability can be attributed to combinations of environment, education, and genetics.

States of consciousness

include alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of consciousness.

Alertness

is the state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information. 

Beta and alpha waves predominate on electroencephalography (EEG).

RAS

a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert. A brain injury that results in disruption of these connections results in coma.

Sleep is important for health of the brain and body.

beta waves

have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration. Beta waves occur when neurons are randomly firing

alpha waves

occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves. Alpha waves are also more synchronized than beta waves

Stage 1

is light sleep and is dominated by theta waves on EEG.

characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages.

stage 2

is slightly deeper and includes theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes.

stage 3 and 4

are deep (slow-wave) sleep (SWS). Delta waves predominate on EEG. Most sleep-wake disorders occur during Stage 3 and 4 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Dreaming in SWS focuses on consolidating declarative memories.

Rapid eye movement (REM) 

the mind appears close to awake on EEG, but the person is asleep. Eye movements and body paralysis occur in this stage. Dreaming in REM focuses on consolidating procedural memories.

sleep cycle

approximately 90 minutes for adults; the normal cycle is

Stage 1–2–3–4–3–2–REM or just 1–2–3–4–REM, although REM becomes more frequent toward the morning.

Changes in light in the evening trigger release of melatonin by the pineal gland, resulting in sleepiness. Cortisol levels increase in the early morning and help promote wakefulness. Circadian rhythms normally trend around a 24-hour day.

dreaming

occurs during REM, but some dreaming occurs during other sleep stages. There are many different models that attempt to account for the content and purpose of dreaming.

Sleep-wake disorders

include dyssomnias disorders that make it difficult to sleep (insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and sleep deprivation)

parasomnias are abnormal movements or behaviours during sleep such as night terrors and sleepwalking (somnambulism).

narcolepsy

a condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

cataplexy

a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep

during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

hypnosis

is a state of consciousness in which individuals appear to be in control of their normal faculties but are in a highly suggestible state. Hypnosis is often used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation.

meditation

involves a quieting of the mind and is often used for relief of anxiety. It has also played a role in many of the world’s religions.

Consciousness-altering drugs

are grouped by effect into

1. depressants

2. stimulants

3. opiates

4. hallucinogens

depressants

result in the sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety

include alcohol, sedatives (eg barbiturates, and benzodiazepines). They promote or mimic GABA activity in the brain (a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane,).

disinhibition

which occurs because the centers of the brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed

Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

stimulants

include amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy. They increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft

opiates

include heroin, morphine, opium, and prescription pain medications such as oxycodone and hydrocodone. They can cause death by respiratory depression.

hallucinogens

include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline,ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

marijuana

has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects. Its active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol.

Drug addiction is mediated by the mesolimbic pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area.

Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in this pathway.

Selective attention

allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention.

Divided attention

uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time

Language

consists of phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.

Phonology

refers to the actual sound of speech.

Morphology

refers to the building blocks of words, such as rules for pluralization (–s in English), past tense (–ed ), and so forth.

Semantics

refers to the meaning of words

Syntax

refers to the rules dictating word order

Pragmatics

refers to the changes in language delivery depending on context

 nativist (biological) theory 

noam chomsky

explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD).

critical period for language acquisition between 2 and puberty

sensitive period

 is a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability.

learning (behaviorist) theory

BF Skinner

explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by caregivers.

social interactionist theory

explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others.

Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis 

states that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language.

Speech areas in the brain are found in the dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left.

The motor function of speech is controlled by Broca’s area

Damage results in Broca’s aphasia, a nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort.

Language comprehension is controlled by Wernicke’s area

Damage results in Wernicke’s aphasia, a fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension.

arcuate fasciculus 

connects Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area. Damage results in conduction aphasia, marked by the inability to repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension.