Metalanguage English language

What is alliteration

The repetition of phonemes at the beginning of words in a phrase, clause or sentence

What is assonance

The repetition of vowel phonemes across a phrase, clause or sentence

What is consonance

The reception of consonant phonemes, often at syllable-final boundaries

What is Onomatopoeia

The process by which evocative words are created from the sounds they represent

What is Rhythm

When the intonation of a set of words is repeated across two or more phrases, clauses or sentences

What is Rhyme

Refers to the repetition of similar phonemes art the ends of two or more words

What does phonological patterning do?

• can be used for fun or to express creativity

• May be used persuasively to capture and maintain the attention of an audience

What is active voice

The subject of a verb performs the action

What is the passive voice

The subject of the verb receives the action

Where is passive voice usually more common? Why?

It is more common in formal writing, and it can allow speakers to avoid specifying the agent of the action, through agentless passive

What is agentless passive

When the agent is omitted from the passive voice to reduce the responsibility of the agent or avoid giving unnecessary detail

What is Syntactic patterning used for?

• to support the authors function or purpose

• Allows them to create rhythmic and memorable pieces of text

• Draws the readers attention to a specific component of the text in a way that reinforces meaning and understanding

What is Parallelism

The repetition of grammatical structures two or more times

What is Antithesis

The presentation of two contrasting ideas near one another in parallel structures

Why is antithesis used

To create a balance between opposing ideas and to emphasise this contrast

What is a listing

Used to present a series of related ideas, items, or elements usually in a similar grammatical form

Why is listing used

• to provide clarity by separating elements into a simple format

• To create rhythm in language

• To emphasis a point or build an argument

What is cohesion

The way we use grammatical and lexical techniques to link words together to create meaning.

What does cohesion consist of?

• lexical choice

• Ellipsis

• Repetition

• Substitution

• Collocation

• Adverbials

• Conjunctions

• Information flow

• Reference

Why is cohesion important

Ensures that the audience can easily follow what is happening within a text

What is Lexical choice

Refers to the role of content words in creating texts. When writing for a purpose, selected words will relate to the topic or concept being discussed creating cohesion

What does lexical choice consist of

• synonymy

• Antonymy

• Hyponymy

• Hypernymy

What is synonymy

Using pairs or groups of words that are equivalent or very similar in meaning

What is Antonymy

The relationship of words that are opposite in meaning, allowing for easy contrast and to be easily compared

What is the difference between hyponymy and hypernymy

A hyponym is a word that belongs to a larger category of terms called a hypernym

What do hypernyms and hyponyms allow the writers to do

• to avoid unnecessary repetition and create varied texts

• To create a clear semantic links between the terms which increases cohesion

What is ellipsis

The omission of words or phrases, particularly when they are already known due to contextual information or because they have been referred to previously

What is repetition

Using the same word throughout a text to reiterate an idea or topic

What is substitution

When alternative words, phrases or clauses are used in place of the original, to reduce unnecessary repetition

What is a collocation

Refers to words that typically appear next to or very near each other in texts.

How does collocation strengthen cohesion

By allowing readers to predict the next word in a sentence or utterance

What is an adverbial

Words, phrases or clauses that can provide information, often in relation to time, place or manner

What are conjunctions

• coordinators join for additions, comparisons and contrasts

• Subordinators place relationships between ideas in context of time and space or cause and effect

Why are adverbials and conjunctions important for cohesion

They improve the flow of writing by tying together phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs

What is information flow used for

• emphasising important information

• Providing contextual information

• Create contrast

• Maintain interest

• Increase readability

What is end focus used for

• Give the information prominence

• Create a sense of anticipation, surprise or resolution

What is Anaphoric referencing

When an author refers to something previously mentioned in conversation or written discourse

What is a cataphoric reference

When an author uses a pronoun or other referring expression to refer to something that will be mentioned later in the discourse

What is cataphoric reference used for

Can build anticipation and set up expectations

What is a deictic reference

An expression used in relation to the speaker, listener or context of the communication, they can signal people, places, objects, times or situations in which a discourse is occurring

What are some deictic references

• pronouns and determiners

• Personal pronouns

• Spatial adverbs

• Temporal adverbs

• Date and time expressions

• Adjectives

• Adverbs of manor

What does coherence consist of

• cohesion

• Inference

• Logical ordering

• Formatting

• Consistency

• Conventions

What is inference

The meaning that the audience makes when considering a text that contains information that is not overtly present

What is logical ordering

Occurs when we construct a text, as we arrange information in a way that will maximise understanding

What are some common logical ordering methods

• chronological - in relation to when they occurred

• Sequential - in a series of steps

• Categorical - by topic

What is formatting

Are visual feature like font size, spacing, alignment, headings and subheadings, lists, text colours and graphics which can help give prominence to more important elements of the text

What is consistency

When similar concepts or entities are referred to in the same way throughout the text without unnecessary variations

What is conventions

Established rules and expectations for how certain types of texts are structured, organised or presented

What are the features of spoken discourse

• openings

• Closing

• Adjacency pairs

• Minimal responses/back channeling

• Overlapping speech

• Discourse markers

• Non fluency features

what is an Opening

The initial phase of a discourse where participants establish contact and introduce the topic or purpose

What do openings do

• help create rapport (familiarity and solidarity)

• Set the stage for the conversation

• Signals the intended tremor

• Helps meet face needs and establish an appropriate register

What is a closing

the final phrase of discourse, where the participants wrap up the interaction, exchange finishing remarks and signal the end of the exchange

What does a closing do

• provides a clear end point to a conversation

• Acts as a opportunity to express appreciation, gratitude or good wishes

• Helps maintain social norms and demonstrate politeness and respect

What are adjacency pairs

They are sequentially linked utterances or turns in a conversation where one speech act is followed by its expected response

What is a dispreferred vs preferred response in adjacency pairs

• dispreferred is when the response is not expected

• Preferred is when it is expected

Why are dispreferred responses usually longer than preferred ones

As they are trying to mitigate any face threatening act - ie by providing explanations or apologies

What are minimal responses/backchanneling

A brief reply in a conversation that acknowledges and encourage another speaker, and may provide opinions on the topic, without providing significant additional information or indicating intention to take the floor

What do backchanneling and minimal responses do

• indicates that a listener is actively engaged and following along

• They establish rapport

• Encourage the speaker to continue And create a smooth and cooperative flow of conversation

What is overlapping speech

The situation in which two or more participants in a conversation speak simultaneously

What can overlapping speech be

cooperative or uncooperative

What is cooperative overlapping speech

when participants engage in simultaneous speech that demonstrates mutual understanding or support, often used to show agreement or build the conversation

What is uncooperative overlapping speech and what does it do

When participants speech over each other without regard for the ongoing conversation. It can disrupt the flow of communication, hinder understanding or show disregard, if it is frequent it can show a hostile relationship

What are discourse markers

Linguistic elements that do not carry any semantic meaning on their own, but play a role in organising communication, managing interactions and indicating speaker intention

What are non fluency features

They are aspects of discourse that reduce its cohesion, these are pauses, filled pauses/voiced hesitations, false starts, repetition and repairs

What are pauses

A brief interval of silence during speech. They can occur as the speaker gathers their thoughts, indicates hesitation or signals a shift in topic

What are filled pauses or voiced hesitations

Instances where speakers use vocalisations to fill the silence in their speech. Often used to indicate hesitation, uncertainty, and a momentary struggle to find words and to hold the floor during a conversation

What are false starts

When a speaker begins an utterance but then interrupt themselves and start again. They can occur due to self correction, uncertainty or a need to rephrase for clarity

What is repetition as a non fluency feature

The unintentional restating of words due to hesitations, self correction or difficulty in finding the right words to say

What are repairs as a non fluency feature

Instances where speakers correct or revise their previous utterances. Occur due to errors, miscommunication or the need for clarification

What are the strategies of spoken discourse

Topic management, turn taking, management of repair sequences and code switching

What are the topic management strategies

Initiation, development, shift, change, loop and termination

What is initiation

The introduction of a new topic.

What is the development

The progression or elaboration of a topic within a conversation

What is shift

When the conversation moves from one topic to another, and there is a coherent link between the topics

What is change

The transition from one topic to another different topic during a conversation. Can be natural or deliberate

What is loop

Revisiting or returning to a previously discussed topic in a conversation

What is termination

The closure of a topic within a conversation, occurring when participants reach a natural end point of the conversation

What is turn taking

Refers to the methods by which speakers alternate turns when talking

What is management of repair sequences

Refers to the processes by which speakers identify and correct communication problems in spoken discourse, to ensure smooth and continuous conversation

What is a self initiated self repair

The speaker realises their own mistake and corrects it immediately without intervention

What is a Self initiated other repair and what does it indicate

The speaker notices their own mistake and invites the listener to correct it. This indicates a cooperative speech exchange as well as familiarity or rapport with the listener

What is other initiated self repair and what does it indicate

When the listener indicates a problem and the speaker makes the correction. This indicates a cooperative speech exchange and familiarity or rapport, however it could also be seen as a face threatening act

What is other initiated other repair and what does it do

The listener indicates a problem and provides a correction. It may cause offence if not appropriate to the context, however when used successfully it can indicate familiarity or rapport

What is code switching

When a speaker switches between two or more language in a single interaction or text

What does code switching demonstrate

In group membership and belonging, to reflect shared cultural or linguistic background, or to increase social bonds and solidarity

What are politeness strategies

Refers to the language choices that show consideration, respect and sensitivity towards others, and awareness of social communication expectations and norms

What is positive politeness

Refers to the strategies we use to create and maintain social harmony by demonstrating empathy and building rapport.

What are some key features of postive politeness

• emphasising similarity

• Showing interest

• Using humour

• Offering compliments

• Using inclusive language

What is negative politeness

Focuses on reducing the imposition placed on the listener

What are some key mitigating strategies of negative politeness

• hedging

• Being indirect and ambiguous

• Using low modality verbs

• Apologising

What is positive face

The desire to be seen as competent and liked by others

What is negative face

The desire to be free from imposition and contractions on autonomy

What is a face threatening act

It is a act of communication that may poise a threat to an individuals postive or negative face needs

What is semantic patterning

Figurative language, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, simile, hyperbole, personification, animation, lexical ambiguity and puns

What is figurative language

Includes words or expressions that deviate from their literal or ordinary meanings to create a more vivid or expressive effect

What is irony

When a speaker states one thing but means another, typically the opposite of what they have stated

What can semantic patterning be used to do

• and cohesion and coherence

• Capture and maintain the attention of specific audiences

What is a metaphor

It uses one semantic domain to help explain another semantic domain

What is an oxymoron

It is created when contradictory words or phrases are used in combination to create a contrasting effect

What does an oxymoron do

Can Evokes irony, humour or emphasise a paradoxical situation