Module 1 Organisms and life processes Unit 1 Life processes

What are 5 kingdoms of living things?

Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals

What are 2 terms used to classify 5 kingdoms?

Eukaryote and Prokaryote

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What are 7 characteristics of living things?

Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, and Nutrition.

OBJR

What are the processes of MRS GREN?

Nutrition—Autotrophs make their own food, and heterotrophs eat other organisms. 

Respiration—Break down the glucose with oxygen to release carbon dioxide, water and energy

Movement—Change in position

Excretion—Removal of metabolic wastes

Growth—Permanent increase in size and complexity

Reproduction—Fertile offspring

Sensitivity—Respond to changes in environment

What are the 2 types of environment?

External environment—Temperature, humidity, Light intensity

Internal environment—Body temperature, blood carbon dioxide concentration, blood pH, body water content

P.A

Describe how to carry out a microscopic examination in an animal cell.

(Liver, cheek, skin cells)

Cheek cells are taken by toothbrush/oral swab

Smear it on glass slide

Stain the glass with methylene blue or iodine.

Cover slip is used

Microscopic examination is done

Observe the detailed structure

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What is a nucleus and its function?

It is the largest organelle, and its function is to control the activities of the cell.

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What is cytoplasm, and what is its function?

Cytoplasm is living material that made up cells and it is the site for cell reaction to take place

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What is a cell membrane and its function?

It is a thin layer like skin that all cells are surrounded by and partially permeable. It forms a boundary between the cytoplasm of the cell and the outside and controls what substances to let in and out.

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What is mitochondria, and what is its function?

Mitochondria are the powerhouses of cells that are mostly found more in cells that require lots of energy. Its function is to release energy and site of aerobic respiration. EXAMPLE: nerve cell & muscle cell

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What is a cell wall and its function?

It is a layer of nonliving material made mainly of cellulose, is freely permeable, surrounds plant cells, and supports plants. Its function is to prevent the cell from bursting.

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What is a chloroplast and its function?

They are green cells that are part of a plant. It contains chlorophyll, whose function is to trap light energy for photosynthesis. contains chlorophyll,

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What is a vacuole (cell sap), and what is its function?

It is a large central space surrounded by a membrane. Its function is to maintain turgor pressure, and cell sap stores dissolved sugars, mineral ions, and other solutes.

P.A

Describe how to carry out microscopic examination in plant cells.

Stem is scraped

Stain it 

Cover it by cover slip

Examine under a microscope. 

Observe detail structure

OBJR

Which cells are present in plants but not animals?

Cell walls, chloroplasts, and vacuoles (which only exist in paramecium and only temporarily in animal cells) are present in plant cells but not in animal cells.
Vacuole in plant = permenant

Vacuole in animal = temporary, small

What is the equation of photosynthesis?

                                      Light energy

Carbon dioxide + water ----------------> Glucose + Oxygen

                                      Chlorophyll

                  Light energy                     

6CO₂ + 6H₂O ----------------> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

                  Chlorophyll                        

What is ribosomes and its function?

• Tiny granules around the ER and on the surface of cytoplasm. Its function is for protein synthesis. 

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What are the similarities in plant cells and animal cells? 

-Cytoplasm 

-Cell membrane 

-Nucleus

-Mitochondria

What is a catalyst?

It is a chemical substance that increase rate of reaction without being used up, unchanged and free to catalyse more reactions

What are 2 types of reactions?

Anabolic reaction (synthesis) & catabolic reaction (breakdown)

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What is an enzyme?

Enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of reaction. Catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction without being used up itself.

What is the nature of enzymes and active sites?

Enzymes are specific to their substrates, and enzyme’s active site is complementary to their substrates

What are 2 types of enzymes?

Extracellular and Intracellular

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Which model enzyme-substrate complex follow?

Enzyme-substrate complex follow the lock-and-key model

What is substrate?

The molecule that enzyme acts on

What is an active site?

Small area on surface of enzyme that bind with substrate

What is the process of the lock and key model?

1. Substrate enters enzyme’s active site

2. Reaction takes place

3. Products formed and left the active site.

4. Active site and enzymes are free again, ready to bind with more substrate.

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What are 2 factors affecting enzyme-catalyzed reactions?  

Temperature and pH

What is the optimal temperature?

A temperature that enzyme works the best

What is secretion?

Release of a fluid or substances from a cell or tissue.

What is kinetic energy?

It is the energy an object has because of its movement.

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What happens to enzyme-catalyzed reactions at the extreme of temperature?

• When temperature is extreme, enzymes become denatured because enzymes are made up of proteins. 

• Shape of active site is deformed

• Substrate no longer bind to active site of enzyme 

• No enzyme-substrate complex is formed. 

• There is decreased/no rate of enzyme catalyst reaction

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Observe this graph.What will happen to enzyme catalysis when the temperature increases? 

• When the temperature is increased, there is increased kinetic energy

• Enzyme & substrate molecules get more kinetic energy 

• Enzyme & substrate molecules get more effective collision 

• More enzyme-substrate complexes are formed 

• So, there is an increased rate of enzyme-catalyst reactions.

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What will happen to enzyme-catalyzed reactions when the temperature increases?

• When the temperature is increased, there is increased energy

• Enzyme & substrate molecules get more kinetic energy 

• Enzyme & substrate molecules get more effective collision 

• More enzyme-substrate complexes are formed 

• So, there is an increased rate of enzyme-catalyst reactions.

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What happens to an enzyme-catalyzed reaction when the temperature is decreased?

• When there is a decrease in temperature, there is less kinetic energy 

• Enzyme and substrate get less energy

• Enzyme and substrate get less collision

• Less enzyme-substrate complex is formed

• Decreased rate of reaction

What is optimal pH?

The pH at which enzymes work best.

What is the optimal pH for most enzymes, pepsin, trypsin, lipase & pancreatic amylase?

Most enzyme = pH 7 (neutral) Pepsin = pH 2 (acidic)  Trypsin, lipase, and pancreatic amylase = pH > 7 (alkaline)

What is pH?

It is an acidic or alkaline solution.

What is the pH range scale?

0-14

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What happens to the enzyme-catalyzed reaction at optimal pH?

• At optimal pH, enzyme & substrate get enough collision 

• Most enzyme-substrate complexes are formed

• Increased rate of enzyme-catalyzed reaction

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What happens to enzyme-catalyzed reactions at extreme pH?

• At extreme pH, enzymes become denatured. 

• Shape of active site is deformed

•  Substrate no longer fit into active site

• Less enzyme-substrate complex is formed 

• Decreased rate of reaction

OBJR

What is aerobic respiration?

It is a breakdown of glucose using oxygen (oxidation)

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What is the balanced chemical symbol equation and word equation for aerobic respiration?

Glucose + Oxygen —-----> Carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

C61206 + 6O₂ —----> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)

OBJR

What is anaerobic respiration, and what are its word and balanced equation?

Breakdown of glucose without using oxygen. (Yeast) Glucose—> Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + energy             C6H12O6—>2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy (ATP) (Animal muscle cell) Glucose —> Lactic acid (Lactate) + some energy C6H12O6—--->2C3H6O3 + energy

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How is ATP formed?

After aerobic respiration, energy is produced, and as ATP is an energy currency, energy is used for ATP synthesis in mitochondria. ATP = Adenosine triphosphate

What are energy currency equations?

(Anabolic) ADP + P —---> ATP + H₂O

(Catabolic) ATP + H₂O —--> ADP + P

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How does ATP provide energy for cells?

Muscle contraction, growth, metabolism, cell division, active transport, building large molecule

What is the word equation for the breakdown of lactic acid?

Lactate + Oxygen—> Carbon dioxide + water

(breathing rate increase)

What is oxygen debt, and when does O₂ debt happen?

• Oxygen debt is extra oxygen that the body needs after vigorous exercise to break down lactic acid. 

• It happens because muscles switch to anaerobic respiration and lactic acid builds up in muscles, causing fatigue and soreness 

• Body need to repay the debt through heavy breathing after vigorous exercise, while liver converts lactic acid back to useful substances.

Why does breathing rate/heart rate increase during exercise?

• During exercise, more muscle contraction is needed. 

• Muscle contraction needs more energy. 

• To supply more energy, more aerobic respiration has to be done

• To do more aerobic respiration, more O₂ & glucose are needed. 

• To supply more O₂ & glucose, breathing rate and heart rate is increased

Why is the breathing rate still increased after vigorous exercise?

• During vigorous exercise, aerobic respiration as well anaerobic respiration needed

• Anaerobic respiration cause lactic acid 

• Lactic acid accumulation causes fatigue (because pH went down)

• To break down lactic acid in the liver, O₂ is needed. This is called oxygen debt. 

• To repay O₂ debt, breathing rate is increased after vigorous exercise.

What is oxygen debt?

Volume of O₂ needed to completely oxidise lactate that build up in body during anaerobic respiration

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What is diffusion?

Net movement of particles (molecules/ions/gas) from a region of higher concentration ti a region of lower concentration down the concentration gradient

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What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion (rate of movement of substances in and out of cell)

Concentration gradient (steeper = faster diffusion rate)

Surface area to volume ratio (Large surface area to volume ratio = faster diffusion rate)

Distance (Greater the distance = slower the rate of diffusion)

Temperature (Higher temperatue = higher diffusion rate)

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What is osmosis? 

Net movement of water molecules from higher water potential to lower water potential (dilute solution to concentrated solution) down the concentration gradient.

What are types of semipermeable membranes?

Visking tube 

Dialysis tube/membrane

What are specialized exchange surfaces and their adaptive features?

Alveoli→1 cell thick→shorter diffusion distance

Villi→large surface area→higher rate of absorption

1 cell thick→shorter diffusion distance

Difference between diffusion and osmosis?

Diffusion	Osmosis
M/V→Molecules,ions,gas	M/V→water
P.p.m	Special. p.m (only water)
Along concentration gradient	Along water potential  Dilute→concentrated

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What is active transport?

M/V of molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration against the concentration gradient by the use of energy, pump (large protein molecules) or by the help of carrier protein

OBJR

What are 2 types of cell division?

Mitosis and Meiosis

What are different types of specific proteins?

• Structural protein 

• Haemoglobin 

• Enzyme 

• Antibodies 

• Carrier protein

OBJR

Describe cell division process in humans.

Sperm cell + Egg cell→zygote (fertilized) (meiosis) 

Zygote→embryo→fetus→newborn baby→adult (mitosis)

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What is the purpose of these cell divisions?

Mitosis: growth and repair

Meiosis: sex cell division to get genetically vast organisms

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What is a stem cell?

Sperm cell + Egg cell→zygote (fertilized) (meiosis) 

Zygote→embryo→fetus→newborn baby→adult (mitosis)

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What is an embryonic stem cell?

Found in the early stage of development of the embryo, able to differentiate into any type of cell.

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What is an adult stem cell?

Certain adult tissues, such as bone marrow (soft tissue inside bone that produce bone cell) 

Limited to one specific tissue only

What are the different types of stem cells?

Hematopoietic stem cell, nervous tissue cell, lung tissue cell

What are specialized cell examples and their functions?

• Palisade mesophyll cell→photosynthesis

• Sperm cell→fuse with ovum

• Ovum→fuse with sperm 

• Neurones→conduct with nerve impulses

Explain the withdrawal of the hand when the finger touches the hot object.

1. Stimulus = hot object 

2. Receptor = receive the stimulus 

3. Sensory nerve→carry nerve impulses to spinal cord 

4. Coordination = Brain + spinal cord 

5. Motor nerve = Carry impulses from brain muscle 

6. Effect or organ = muscle or glands 

7. Response = contraction of muscle, withdrawal of hand

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What is the division of labor in biology?

Cell→Tissue→Organ→Organ system→Living organisms

What is neuron structure and its function?

Long, has 3 parts: Dendrite, Body, Axon

Dendrite structure: Several branched structure, 

Dendrite function: Impulses toward cell body senses 

Body structure: Has cytoplasm, nucleus, cytoplasm 

Body function: Send impulses to axon

Axon structure: Protect with Myelin sheath (protect internal organs) (Carry nerve impulses)

Axon function: Transmit nerves impulses quickly from one cell body to another

What is smooth muscle cell structure from the wall of the intestine and its function?

• Smooth muscle structure: Non-striated, as no protein filaments are aligned in the cell. 1 nucleus per cell. Not branched, cells tap the cell at the ends, elongated (involuntary) 

Function: move food through the gut

What is a xylem vessel in plant structure, and what is its function?

Structure: Dead, hollow cell with strengthening rings.

Function: Transport water upstream and mineral ions and support the uprightness of the plant.

What are guard cells from the surface of a leaf structure, and what is their function?

Structure: Special shape results in pore between cells

Function: Gas exchange

What is leaf palisade cell structure and its function? 

Structure: Packed full of chloroplasts

Function: Photosynthesis

What are sperm cell structure and its functions?

Structure: Head, Middle piece, tail 

Head: contains genes from father 

Tail: for swimming 

Middle piece: many mitochondria→to supply energy

What is the digestive system?

Structure: Gut, pancreas, gallbladder 

Function: digest food and absorb the digested

What is the respiratory (gas exchange) system?

Structure: Lung, alveoli, bronchus

Function: Exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen

What is the circulatory system?

Structure: Heart, blood vessels

Function: Transport materials around the body

What is the excretory system?

Structure: Kidneys 

Function: Filter toxic waste materials from the blood (urea)

What is the nervous system?

Structure: Brain, spinal cord and nerves

Function: Coordinate the body’s actions

What is the endocrine system?

Structure: Glands secreting hormones 

Function: Chemical messengers

What is the reproductive system?

Structure: Sperm is in the male and egg is in the female.

Function: Allow the development of embryomale,

Label these organs