Chapter 2: Sociological Research Methods

Quantitative Research

Research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; tries to find cause-and-effect relationships

Qualitative Research

Research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs & audio recordings; tries to understand how people make sense of their world

The Scientific Approach

The scientific method is the standard procedure for acquiring & verifying empirical (concrete, scientific) knowledge

Scientific Method

• Identify a problem or ask a question

• Conduct a literature review

• Form a hypothesis and give operational definitions to variables

• Choose a research design or methodology

• Collect data

• Analyze data

• Disseminate findings

Variables - Correlation

A relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be causal

Variables - Causation

A relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other

Intervening Variable

A third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables

Spurious Correlation

The appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable

Deductive Approach

An approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis

Inductive Approach

An approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data

Ethnography / Participant Observation

• A naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also, the written work that results from study

• A qualitative method that allows for the study of a wide variety of people & places

Autoethnography

Richly detailed accounts of a researcher’s own thoughts, feelings, and experiences in the field as a focal point of their story

Thick Description

The presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members

Reflexivity

How the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field settings

Overt Research

Researchers are open about their sociological intentions

Covert Research

members are observed without knowing research is being conducted on them

Grounded Theory

An inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories

Representativeness

The degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society

Interviews

Face to face, information-seeking conversations to gather qualitative data directly from research subjects or respondents

Target Population

Group that is the focus of a study

Sample Group

Smaller group that is representative of the larger group

Digital Ethnography

Involves the use of participant observation methods to study online communities

Informed Consent

A safeguard through which the researcher makes sure respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research

Surveys

Questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population

• most are composed of close-ended questions

Open-ended Question

A question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses

Simple Random Sampling

Each member of the larger target population has an equal chance of being included in the sample based on random number generation

Cross-Sectional Surveys

Surveys that collect data at a single point in time

Longitudinal Surveys (Ex. Repeated & Panel Surveys)

Surveys that collect data at multiple points in time

Repeated Cross-Sectional Surveys

Surveys that collect data at multiple points in time from different samples

Panel Surveys

Surveys that collect data from the same sample at multiple points in time

Existing Sources

Materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research

Unobtrusive Measures

Research methods that rely on existing sources and whereby the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects

Comparative Historical Research

Seeks to understand relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods

Content Analysis

A method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image or media message

Experimental Methods

Formal tests of specific variables and effects

• Performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled

Social Network Analysis

A tool for measuring and visualizing the structure of social relationships between two or more people

Hawthorne Effect

A specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself

Research Methods

• Ethnography/Participant Observation

• Interviews

• Surveys

• Existing Sources

• Experimental Methods

• Social Network Analysis