Psych - Trait & Biological

Chapters 7, 8 & 9

Trait

Consistent pattern in the way individuals behave, think and feel

“Trait” implies…consistency and distinctiveness

* describes irregularly in a person's behaviors
* Collection of traits that define/describe and individual = disposition
* Predispose us to act in a certain way
* Concern with the traits by which people differ
* Theorists do a lot of defining and identifying what traits are
* Also interested in measurement
* Personality inventories/tests
* Identification of individual’s traits and provision of accurate description of person’s personality based on those traits

Traits function to:

* describe (taxonomy) - scientific way of classifying things
* Goal is to identify the smallest number of traits that are possessed by everyone
* Predict
* With knowledge about a person’s traits -> should be able to predict how someone with be like in a particular situation or in general
* Strength of these traits among individual varies and thus the individuals with behave differently
* explain\*
* \*not all trait theorists are concerned with this…
* Majority are most interested in describing and predicting
* Some suggest that traits can be used to explain a person’s behavior

Trait =

* Consistency
* Stability 

State =

* Has to do with a particular situation
* Emotional experience of a person
* Mood of a person
* Immediate situation of a person
* How our traits express themselves differently based on the state we are in 

Activities =

* Things you can observe
* Some say you can infer from observable actions how one behaves and what traits they have that results in their behavior
* Might reflect traits, but might reflect state

Roles =

* In different roles that an individual is in, their traits will present differently 
* Determines how we behave, think and feel

Gordon Allport (1897 - 1967)

* Book had huge impact on the study of personality psychology
* Father of personality psychology
* Spent most of academic career at Harvard
* Humanistic view: person in state of “becoming”
* Was trained as a Freudian
* Emphasis on the individual’s **unique** behaviors and thoughts
* internal , motivation and cognitive concerns as well
* Believed personality was jointly caused by biology and psychology

Allport’s Trait Theory

* Traits are neuropsychic structures
* Located in a part of our nervous system
* Can infer they are via the expression of those traits
* Couldn’t prove their “physical” existence
* Traits can initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and expressive behavior
* Traits are common or personal
* Much more interested in the personal traits
* Can be studied by nomothetic (standardized measures) or idiographic (flexible measures) methods
* preferred idiographic method

Allport on trait consistency

* Recognized importance of the situation
* Traits explain consistency
* Situation explains variability

Cardinal Traits

* Pervasive and dominant
* Pervasive: affect every aspect of our lives
* Dominant: very very strong, very important in terms of defining our personality
* “Master motives”
* “Ruling passions”
* Define what we find interesting, stimulating and gravitate towards

Central Traits

 important, but control less of one’s behavior; typical descriptors

* Cover more limited amount of situations than cardinal traits
* More changeable, malleable

Secondary Traits

less important or conspicuous

Personality Development

* Concept of the “self”
* Uniqueness of the individual
* Functional autonomy (ideally)
* if the motive is functionally autonomous, the individual is doing that because they want to do that and it expresses a part of their personality 
* behavior based on present interests and conscious decisions
* Behaviors not traceable to childhood experiences
* Early development: peripheral motives and guided by tension reduction
* Dependence on other people, means to enhance survival through meeting needs


* Adult life: shift toward self-strivings
* Doing things because it's what we consciously chose to do
* Influence by our personality traits

Allport’s Legacy

* Valued contributions to personality & trait theory
* Lack of explanation for traits
* Research concerns:
* No clear trait/situation link
* No support for claim of hereditary influence
* Over-reliance on idiographic methods


* All other trait theorists have endeavored to establish a set of traits possessed by every person to some degree

Raymond Cattel (1905 - 1998)

* London scientist
* Research assistant for Spearman
* Spent time at Columbia


* *Factor analysis method*
* __Surface traits__
* __Source traits__

Surface Traits

*  ‘on the surface’; behavioral tendencies
* Visible, observable in behaviors

Source Traits

*  internal psychological structures that are the underlying cause of intercorrelations of surface traits

Surface and Source Trait Relationship

* A few source traits can create what seem to be many ‘different’ surface traits
* A factor analysis of surface traits can reveal their underlying source traits

Factor Analysis

* A statistical tool for summarizing the ways in which a large number of variables are correlated
* Premier tool used by trait theorists to identify the structures of personality

Correlation Coefficient

Factor Analysis: Step 1

Collect surface trait ratings from many people

Factor Analysis: Step 2

Calculate correlations among those ratings

Factor Analysis: Step 3

Extract factors from the correlation matrix

Factor Analysis: Step Four

Calculate factor loadings

Factor Analysis: Step 5

Review the loadings and name the factors

Factor Analysis: Step 2 example

calculate correlations among items

Factor Analysis: Steps 4 & 5 example

4: loading of 6 items on 2 factors

5: name the factors

Factor Analysis Benefits

* Reduces the multiple reflections of personality to a smaller set of traits.
* Provides a basis for arguing that some traits matter more than others.
* Helps in developing assessment devices.

Cattel: 3 categories of source traits

* __Ability traits__
* __Temperament traits__
* __Dynamic traits__

Ability Traits

skills that allow the individual to function effectively

Temperament Traits

traits involved in emotional life

Dynamic traits

traits involved in motivational life

The Five Factor Model

Openness to experience

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

* Considered good theory but not perfect
* An adequate number of traits/factors to describe everyone’s personality
* Each one of us possesses each of these traits on a continuum

The Big Five Trait Factors and Scales

Cross-Cultural Research

Cross-Cultural Research

Are the Big Five universal? Methodological issue: translation

* DiBlas & Forzi, 1999
* E, A & C replicated in Italian
* DeRaad & Peabody, 2005
* E,A, C “cross-lingually recurrent”

Costa and McCrea: Big five structure is a human universal

NEO Personality Inventory (Neo-PI-R)

* Primary assessment tool to assess the traits in an individual
* Measures five factors & six ‘facets’
* Good reliability & validity
* Reliability: consistent results
* Validity: measures what it says it measures
* Agrees with other Big Five instruments
* If someone takes it and another assessment tool that measures the big five the results will be similar
* Correlates with Eysenck’s inventories & Cattell’s 16 factors

Big Five - Six Facets

Integration of Theories

* Eysenck’s Extraversion and Neuroticism virtually identical to Extroversion and Neuroticism dimensions of Big Five
* Eysenck’s Psychoticism corresponds to combination of Low Conscientiousness + Low Assertiveness
* NEO-PI-R relates meaningfully with Q-Sort

Costa and McCrea: Big Five more than descriptors

* Each factor is a universal structure
* Everyone has each psychological structure (trait) in varying amounts
* Psychological structures (traits) causally influence psychological development
* How we develop psychologically is due in part to the strength of these particular traits

Costa and McCrea beliefs

* Factors have a biological basis
* Differences linked to the Big Five determined by genetic influences on neural structure & brain chemistry
* The five traits are *not influenced by the environment*; strongest “nature” position possible

Problematic Issues (Five Factor)

1. How to link personality structures to personality processes


1. Response: those are to be filled in by different theorists
2. Claim that traits are not affected by social factors


1. There is research that directly challenges this assertion
3. Five-factor theory claims everyone has all five factors

Growth and Development: longitudinal research

* Evidence of stability over long time periods
* Significant correlations among repeated measures
* Change evident, despite stability
* Greater stability in adulthood than in childhood

Growth and Development

* What accounts for differences across the lifespan?
* Personality change?
* Cohort effects?
* Differences in different groups of people
* Cohort: people who “go through life together”
* Different cohorts experience the same events but within the context of the particular cohort
* How particular events affect each cohort are different

Maybe we missed one? The Six Factor Model

* Big Five model had been consensus since the 1980s
* Sixth factor suggested: honesty/humility

Six Factor Model?

* Individual differences in the tendency to be truthful and sincere vs. cunning and disloyal are a reliable sixth factor


* Validated across 7 languages
* Not yet incorporated into theory or research

Evaluation: Trait Theory

* DATABASE: excellent
* SYSTEMATIC: Cattell, yes; Eysenck, so-so; Costa & McCrea, not so much
* TESTABLE: very good
* COMPREHENSIVE: yes & no
* APPLICATIONS: yes, in re: predictions; not strong in re: clinical usefulness

Factor Analysis Benefits

* Reduces the multiple reflections of personality (trait terms that you can use to describe somebody) to a smaller set of traits.
* Provides a basis for arguing that some traits matter more than others.
* If a factor accounts more a large amount of variability (load strongly) they are more important
* Helps in developing assessment devices.
* Aim to describe individuals based on trait theory

Cattel: 3 categories of Source Traits

* ability traits
* temperament traits
* dynamic traits

Ability Traits (Cattel)

* skills that allow the individual to function effectively
* Success in dealing with the ups and downs of life

Temperament Traits (Cattel)

traits involved in emotional life

Dynamic Traits (Cattel)

* traits involved in motivational life
* What propels us to engage in particular activity
* Traits involved in selection and pursuit of activities 

The 16-PF Test (Cattel)

* Every human being possesses these traits to a certain extent
* Response on test determines where they fall on the continuum of a particular personality factor
* Provide reasonable accurate description of personality
* Benefits: fewer items to assess and terms to identify
* Drawback: may not be entirely comprehensive - many not adequately/accurately describe a personality, things may be missing

Cattel’s Legacy…

* Strong foundation based on systematic research efforts 
* 16 PF continues to be widely used in applied settings
* Work exerts little impact in contemporary personality science
* The 16 factor approach is not parsimonious
* Still too many
* Based his theory on measurement, which is risky

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)

* Born in berlin
* Parents well known actors
* Left germany in 1930s after Hitler assumed power
* University of Dijon and then University of London
* Majority of professional life in hospice


* Took factor analytic method further
* 3 factor model
* Emphasized biological foundation of personality

Secondary Factor Analysis (Eysenck)

used to identify a simple set of factors that are statistically independent (not correlated with each other)

* Conducted factor analysis and secondary factor analysis
* Re-factor-analyzed the first 
* Factors are commonly correlated; intercorrelations among factors can themselves be factor-analyzed

Superfactors

* Factor analytic trait dimensions derived from factor analysis
* Highest level of hierarchy of traits
* superfactor
* trait level
* Habitual response level: typical responses
* Specific response level: responses based in specific contexts
* Most people fall somewhere in the middle for most
* Proposed that in addition to the 16PF not being independent, but that individuals who took that test would often end up with scores that correlated with other factors (overlap)

Extraversion (superfactor)

organizes lower-level traits such as sociability, activity, liveliness and excitability

Neuroticism (superfactor)

(emotional stability vs. instability) organizes traits such as anxious, depressed, shy, and moody

General Personality Dimensions

* introversion/extroversion
* emotional stability/instability
* Anyone can be described within this two-dimensional space according to Eysenck

Psychoticism (superfactor)

* “abnormal” qualities, including
* aggressiveness, a lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness, and antisocial behavioral tendencies
* Not everyone would have this 
* Only comes into play with individuals who display “abnormal” traits qualities

Measuring Superfactors

* Eysenck developed simple, self-report items designed to tap each of the factors
* Included “lie scale” items:
* (Yes / No response format) 
* Do you sometimes laugh at a dirty joke?  
* Did you always do as you were told as a child?

Objective Measures: The “Lemon Drop Test”

* Introverts & extraverts differ in amount of saliva produced
* Based in reticular activating system
* Introverts = more saliva
* Very sensitive and highly responsive to stimuli
* Extrovert = less saliva
* Need more stimulation
*  Suggests a biological basis to individual differences

Individual differences in introversion-extraversion

*Introverts:* more cortical arousal

*Extroverts:* less cortical arousal

Twin Studies

suggest heredity accounts for some differences in extraversion

Psychopathology (according to Eysenk)

* Neurotic symptoms = biology + environment
* Majority of neurotic patients: high N & low E scores
* Criminals & antisocial persons: high N,E, & P

Five Factor Model: “The Big Five”

Evidence-based approach focused on individual differences (Costa & McCrea 1992)

Individual Differences

* “How do people differ from each other?”
* “Is there a set of basic…?”
* Is there a set of factors that can accurately describe everyone’s personality?

Five Factor Model Research Evidence

Factor Analyses of 3 types of data:

* Trait terms in the natural language
* cross-cultural research
* Relation of trait questionnaires to other questionnaires

Temperament - Thomas & Chess (1977)

* Studied infants throughout childhood and adolescence 


* Biologically based
* Primarily from developmental psychology
* Individual differences
* How we differ from each other personality-wise
* Emotional & motivational tendencies
* Evident early in life

Longitudinal Study Design

* Allows researchers to determine if psychological qualities in life are enduring over a long period of time


* 2000: 1 year old
* 2007: 7 years old
* 2014: 14 years old

New York Longitudinal Study

* 100 children from birth to adolescents
* Used parental ratings of reactions to different situations (biased)
* Found that temperament styles tended to endure over the growth of the babies
* Having parents rate them on things like, activity level, mood, persistence in task

New York Longitudinal Study Infant Temperament Types - Easy

*  playful & adaptable
* Easy to sooth, adapt readily to routines, “go with the flow”

New York Longitudinal Study Infant Temperament Types - Difficult

* negative & not adaptable
* Easily upset and not easily calmed, not highly adaptable to routine

New York Longitudinal Study Infant Temperament Types - Slow to warm up

* low reactivity & mild responses
* More reactive than easy babies but not as reactive as difficult babies
* In between the two

“Goodness to fit”

* The particular environments that the caregivers provide are better fits for certain types of temperament styles in babies
* Ex: a difficult baby would do better in a more quiet and calm household environment
* Difficult babies found more trouble adjusting to things later in life, and easy babies had an easier time

Buss & Plomin (1984) - Dimensions of Temperament

* Used parental ratings of children’s behaviors (biased)
* Found that individual difference in temperament were found stable across time and largely heritable
* Twin studies supported genetic influence
* Biological systems that underlie temperament were not identified

Dimensions of Temperament (Buss & Plomin)

* Emotionality
* Ease of arousal in upsetting situations
* General distress
* Activity
* How strongly and how fast the child’s motor movements are 
* Sociability
* How responsive the child is to other
* open/closed to new people
* Do they make friends easily

Kagan (1994, 2003, 2012)

* Direct, objective measure used
* Children in lab and observed behavior there
* Reduced likelihood of bias, but in artificial setting
* 2 clearly defined temperament profiles: INHIBITED/UNINHIBITED

Inhibited (temperament profile)

* reacted to unfamiliar situations/people with restraint, discomfort, distress - take longer time to settle down and relax in new situation, quiet, sought parental comfort, run and hide

Uninhibited (temperament profile)

* responded with curiosity and spontaneity to new things, laughing, smiling, engaging, much more comfortable

Findings (inhibited vs. uninhibited) - Kagan

* High reactivity should -> inhibited
* Low reactivity should -> uninhibited


* Videotaped in lab setting when exposed to novelty


* 20% children = high reactivity
* 40% children = low reactivity
* 40% children = a mix
* Found continuity in these results within longitudinal studies
* Found that over time many reactive children did not become consistently fearful as they grew (influenced impart by parental attachment)

Biological Influences on Inhibition

* Uninhibited and inhibited people differ in brain


* Amygdala
* Strong emotions, fear and anger
* Inhibited children = higher activity
* Frontal cortex
* Higher level of brain, involved in regulation of emotional response, influencing the amygdala
* Stathmin (protein) & influence of gene
* Studied in lower animals
* Directly influences the activity/functioning of the amygdala
* Mice with or without the protein differed in behavior

Consistency....and change of temperament 

* Influence of mother’s behavior during infancy
* Degree of mother’s social support in early childhood

(Fox et al., 2005)

Evolutionary psychology

* Human nature is the product of evolutionary process via natural selection
* Characteristics that enhance survival of the species are more likely to be passed on to future generations
* Important to survival & reproductive success


* Proximate causes: biological processes operating in the organism at the time the behavior is observed


* Ultimate causes: Why is a given biological mechanism a part of the organism?
* Is this biological mechanism somehow enhancing survival?

Ultimate causes

* Some biological features are better than others
* Possession those features -> more likely to survive, reproduce, & be ancestors
* The biological mechanism *evolves*: Population reflects beings who possess the adaptive biological mechanism

Evolved tendencies

* Some may no longer be adaptive
* Persist even though they may no longer be adaptable 
* Are domain specific: solve particular problems in specific settings
* Problems solved differently in:
* Mate preferences
* Parenthood
* jealousy

Buss: contents of human nature

* Need to belong
* Survival and reproduction relies on the ability to connect with others in the group: cooperating, achieving status (resources, attention, importance)
* Being ostracized would be damaging
* Helping & altruism
* Helping others makes it more likely that you are going to receive help when you need it
* Altruism: doing something good because you just want to do something good and don’t expect anything to be reciprocated
* When people are helpful or altruism they are hoping it will be helpful for their survival

Universal Emotions - Ekman, 1973

* Provides support for evolutionary psychologists
* Traveled around the world and took pictures of facial expressions and all the different subjects identified these seven different emotions


* \~Contempt\~Anger\~Disgust\~Fear\~
* \~Happiness\~Sadness\~Surprise!

Mate preferences - parental investment theory: women

* Biological differences cause women to invest more in parenting
* Carry burden of pregnancy
* Can pass genes on to fewer offspring 
* “mate value” (of men) dependent upon ability to provide protection & resources

Parental investment theory: men

* Men less concerned with protection
* Can potentially pass genes on to large # of offspring
* “mate value” (of women) determined by reproductive fitness: youth & physical attractiveness

Parenthood

* Women: certainty in regard to offspring
* Men: potential for uncertainty in regard to paternity
* Need to take steps to ensure investment is directed toward own offspring

Jealousy

* Buss: men & women should differ in terms of events that provoke jealousy
* Research suggests…
* Males: sexual infidelity more concerning
* Women: emotional infidelity more concerning

Eagly & Wood, 1999

* Robustness/accuracy of EP research conclusions?
* Societal characteristics
* Similarity of roles
* Greater gender equality
* Interactions between biology & social factors suggested

The fundamental lexical hypothesis

" “the most important individual differences in human transactions will come to be encoded as single terms in some or all of the world's languages”"

* Goldberg

Behavior Genetics

* The study of genetic contributions to behavior
* Estimate degree to which variation in psychological characteristics is due to genetic factors
* Interaction between genes & environment
* And where in the environment our genes have their effect

Heritability

* A statistic that refers to the proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that **can** be accounted for by genetic variance
* refers to the variation in the population examined in a given study (not generalizable outside of the group of individuals being studied)
* If h^2 is

Interpretation of h^2

* h^2 **DOES NOT** indicated the degree to which genetics accounts for the fact that a particular individual has a particular characteristic 
* h^2 of .40 for inhibition **DOES NOT MEAN** that 40% of that trait is inherited
* h^2 of .40 for inhibition means that genetics accounts for **40% of the variability between the people** in the population studied

Investigating Heritability - selective breeding

* Done on animals
* Animals with a desired trait are selected and mated 
* Same processed used through offspring to try to maintain consistency in traits
* Concluded that heritability must play a factor in personality traits as demonstrated by the success of selective breeding

Investigating Heritability - twin studies

* Monozygotic (identical)
* If two organisms are genetically identical, then any observed differences can be attributed to environment
* Effects of biology endure even across different environments
* Dizygotic (fraternal)
* If two genetically different organisms are reared in the same environment, the differences are attributed to genetic material
* Adoption studies
* Studies that look at children raised by people other than their biological parents and are then compared to adoptive vs. biological parents