Ideologies - Conservatism

Origins of Conservatism

Origins of Conservatism

Late 18th Century as a response to the French Revolution.

Conservatism opposed revolution, it promoted the idea of change to conserve. As Edmund Burke argues in his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), ‘A state without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation.’

Traditional conservatism dominated from the French Revolution to the late 19th Century before developing into one-nation conservatism. Since the mid 20th Century, New Right thinking has pushed conservatism in a more Neo-liberal direction.

What was Thomas Hobbes’ main work?

Leviathan (1651). Hobbes was the first philosopher in the English speaking world to outline a modern justification for the state. His work was written in response to the English Civil Wars and the anarchy that he associated with that period.

How did Hobbes view human nature?

Hobbes’ view of human nature is perhaps the most gloomy and cynical. He sees humans as endlessly restless in their pursuit of power in order to satisfy their immediate desires and any potential future desires.

This desire for power is both selfish and competitive, and is evidence of Hobbes’ emphasis on the individual.

Humans are also roughly equal in strength and ability, so must always be fearful of others as the ‘weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest’.

How did Hobbes view the state of nature?

In Hobbes’ state of nature, resources are scarce. Therefore, given humans’ desire for power and that they are roughly equal, there will be a ‘war… of every man against every man’ and ‘notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice, have no place.’

Hobbes famously argued that life in the state of nature would be ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’.

However, the first natural law is that man should seek peace as far as he can and then, if not, use war.

As humans are rational, it is reasonable to assume that the people, for self-preservation, will rise above the state of nature. They will achieve this by agreeing a social contract between themselves and a powerful ruler.

How did Hobbes view the state/sovereign

The social contract between the people establishes a sovereign, with absolute power to provide order, security and stability, which will lead to the emergency of society.

The key for Hobbes was that sovereign power was placed in one supreme authority which is not limited by the legal rights of other bodies.

His preferred form of government was monarchy. However, it is clear that his arguments can apply to all forms of government where there is one absolute authority.

The social contract is made between the people, not between the people and sovereign. When the contract is completed, the power of the people is at an end as the sovereign has all the power and the people only have the rights the sovereign chooses to give them.

Is conservatism an ideology?

Some political theorists have argued that conservatism is politically incoherent due to the inbuilt tensions between one-nation conservativism and the New Right.

Some have argued that it is a jumbled collection of beliefs, attitudes and ideas that are, in the words of Michael Oakeshott, 'more psychology than ideology.

Conservatism lacks an end goal. It has no view of the type of society or economy it is working towards, and so lacks any concrete idea of progress or development.

What are the distinctive features of traditional conservatism?

Hierarchy - Human nature and society are naturally divided by wealth, status and power.

Paternalism - The ruling elite have a sense of obligation and duty to the many. Government should act like a 'father' to its 'children', the people. The people should show deference to their leaders.

Order - The government provides clear rules, discipline and guidance to ensure that society is ordered, peaceful and stable. This will create the responsible citizen and ensure that freedom benefits everyone and is not abused.

Freedom - Traditional conservatism is about freedom and the limits to freedom provided by institutions and attitudes that allow everyone to enjoy that freedom responsibly. These limits allow everyone to understand that their good behaviour, trust and care for others will be reciprocated by others, partly through fear of breaking the law.

Social attitudes - Traditional conservatism upholds that there are proven moral values that have provided stability and certainty. These values include traditional marriage and conventional family life with traditional gender roles. Individual freedoms will need to be limited to protect these attitudes and values, to ensure society is cohesive and stable and works for all.

'Little platoons' - Society is a collection of little platoons, not individuals. The little platoons provide the first link in the chain to 'a love of our country and to mankind', according to Burke.

Change to conserve - Change and reform must be gradual and respect the accumulated wisdom of tradition.

Empiricism - The traditional conservative approach to political problems is to focus on what works (tradition, customs and attitudes) rather than what theory and abstract principles say will work.

What was Edmund Burke’s key work?

Edmund Burke is often regarded as the father of conservatism, with his key text being a passionate opposition to the French Revolution, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). Burke was a Whig MP and his thinking was based on the Whig principle of opposition to absolute, arbitrary power.

What did Burke believe about the American and French Revolutions?

Burke was a supporter of the American Revolution, which ended in 1783, but was fundamentally opposed to the French Revolution.

Burke supported the American Revolution as its aim was to protect the ancient rights and privileges of the people, which existed before the monarch in London began to tax them without authority. It was 'change to conserve.

In contrast, the French Revolution was based on abstract theory and idealism born out of frustration with the French power structure and the resultant poverty of the majority of the population. It aimed to destroy the collective wisdom of the ages by throwing out existing institutions, customs and traditions to create a new society based on 'philosophical abstractions' rather than empiricism.

How did Burke view human nature?

Burke had a broadly sceptical view of human nature. He saw the individual as foolish but the species as wise.

He argued that humans could not rely on individual reason (rationalism) but could rely on tradition and custom, which was the 'general bank and capital of nations and ages.

Burke also opposed the idea of a social contract as suggested by Hobbes.

He argued that the only contract that existed was between 'the dead, the living and the yet to be born'. The present must nurture and protect past tradition and custom to pass it on to future generations.

The French Revolution was a destruction of that contract as it destroyed existing institutions, practices and customs, and so removed the inheritance of those yet to be born.

How did Burke view society?

Burke was highly critical of individualism, defending the importance of the 'we' over the !'. 'Little platoons' are the places where traditions and customs are formed, which are the bank of knowledge developed from trial and error in dealing with political problems.

Organic society.

Burke attacked the French Revolution's emphasis on equality, arguing that hierarchy was natural in organic societies.

Origins of One-Nation conservatism

One-nation conservatism emerged from the threat to the order of state and society from socialism, class conflict and the effects of free-market capitalism that emerged from classical liberalism. One-nation conservatism updates traditional conservatism's ideas to deal with this threat.

What does One-Nation argue for

Conservatism should emphasise and focus on the bonds of affection and trust that hold society together as part of a nation. All classes and groups in society are part of one nation because society is organic, where damage or distress to one element will damage the whole. This is summed up in Benjamin Disraeli's phrase 'the palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy'.

What role does ‘change to conserve’ play in one-nation conservatism

Disraeli was particularly concerned with the ravaging effects on society of an unchecked free market. He accepted the rise of big cities and the spirit of commercialism as inevitable, so did not want reactionary policies to head back to a previous time. He wanted instead to tackle the worst consequences of the market to conserve society, as he saw reform as an inoculation against revolution.

What role does paternalism play in one-nation conservatism?

There is a clear bond between groups, so it is clear that the wealthy have a responsibility to the less well-off. This would involve the state intervening in the free-market economy and society in order to ensure social stability.

Noblesse oblige?

What was Michael Oakeshott’s key work?

Michael Oakeshott updated the conservative approach to human nature and the conservative view on gradual reform, in particular, in his collection Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962).

How did Oakeshott view human nature?

Oakeshott saw humans as fragile and fallible, unable to understand the world because it is too complex for human reason to grasp.

What criticisms did Oakeshott have of rationalism?

He was highly critical of the politics of ‘rationalism’ which is the idea of remaking society based on the abstract ideas and principles of political philosophers.

Oakeshott argued that abstract ideas will always fail as they are not based on concrete experience. Worse, the remaking of society can do untold damage to traditions which are based on hundreds of years of practical experience.

Humans and societies prefer ‘the familiar to the unknown… the actual to the possible’, so a pragmatic and empirical approach to problems works best.

Why did Oakeshott reject the ‘politics of faith’?

Oakeshott rejected the ‘politics of faith’, with its faith in the ability of the government to improve the condition of mankind or even to perfect mankind. In its place, he proposed the ‘politics of scepticism’, as the government’s attempts to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity.

How did Oakeshott view conservatism?

Conservatism is a ‘disposition’ not an ideology, and although conservatives are disposed towards limited government, it should not be on the basis of some abstract deal.

Oakeshott argued that ‘in political activity, then, men sail a boundless and bottomless sea; there is neither harbour for shelter nor floor for anchorage, neither a starting-place nor appointed destination. The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel.’

What are the origins of the New Right?

The New Right can be traced back to the rise of authoritarian regimes in the twentieth century such as Nazi Germany and, perhaps even more so, Stalin's Soviet Union.

Alongside this, the New Right is also a response to the growth of the state in Western democracies after the Second World War, and the development of the welfare state and increased taxation.

How did the New Right view the state?

The New Right is partly inspired by Ayn Rand's idea of the 'morality of rational self-interest' (The Virtue of Selfishness.)

For rational self-interest to be the key principle of society, the state needs to be rolled back.

The New Right opposes public spending on welfare as it is both unjust, according to Robert Nozick, and creates a dependency culture.

How does the New Right view the economy?

The New Right believes that market forces are the best method for the distribution and management of society's resources. Everyone should be free to follow all the opportunities they can in the marketplace, with minimal levels of taxation and regulation, in order to create greater prosperity for all.

Echoes of this can be found in what is often termed 'trickle-down economics', where it is argued that cutting taxes for the richest will trickle down the economy to benefit everyone.

How does the New Right view society?

Neo-conservatives are anti-permissive and would extend the role of the state to promote traditional family values, like traditional marriage, and to protect national security and defence.

For neo-liberals, individual choice is not just about economics but also about morality. Therefore, the state should not intervene in areas of private morality.

What are Ayn Rand’s key works?

Atlas Shrugged (1957), and her works of philosophy, including The Virtue of Selfishness (1964).

What did Rand propose?

Rand offered a new concept of rational and ethical egoism; an ethics of rational selfishness which is the basis of a new morality and can be seen as a form of radical individualism. She describes her philosophy as objectivism.

In 1962 she argued '[Man] must exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself. The pursuit of his own rational self-interest and of his own happiness is the highest moral purpose of his life.'

What does Rand’s selfishness mean?

Selfishness does not mean doing as you please; rather it means humans must pursue their own happiness as the highest moral aim and prosper by treating others as individuals. This supports the idea of atomism, where there is no such thing as society, only a collection of individuals pursuing their own happiness.

How did Rand view the state?

The state's role is vital but strictly limited to acting as a policeman, protecting the rights of each individual against criminals and foreign invaders.

How did Rand view society/economy?

The ideal social system is free-market capitalism, which involves a separation of state and economics'. This system protects the rights of the individual to use their own mind, act on their own judgement, work for their values and keep the product of their labour.

Her view is meritocratic not hierarchical; the most talented individuals start businesses, invent new technologies and create ideas and art through their own talents and trade with other rational egoists to reach their goals.

What was Robert Nozick’s key work?

His work Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974) can be seen as an attack on socialism and wealth redistribution of any kind.

How did Nozick view human nature?

Nozick broke from the Hobbesian tradition and has a far more optimistic view of human nature.

All individuals have self-ownership; they are the owners of their own body, mind and abilities.

He saw individuals as having their own ends and projects to which they rationally devote themselves. Individuals have rights that existed before any social contract or state and 'there are things no person or group may do to them (without violating their rights).

Nozick's positive view of human nature led him to conclude that there are only individual people, different individual people, with their own individual lives who are dignified and rational in pursuit of their own goals rather than brutishly competitive atoms.

How did Nozick view taxation?

Any attempt to achieve social justice via the redistribution of wealth and progressive taxation is an assault on liberty, as 'taxation of earnings is on par with forced labour'

The individual should be able to keep the fruits of their labour, as they have been earned in a free market through their hard work and talents.

How did Nozick view the state?

A minimalist state could be justified if it is strictly limited to the protection of person, property and contract. This is a concession to the conservative view that the state does need to be strong but limited, to provide the necessary order for liberty to flourish.

What was Nozick’s ‘Wilt Chamberlain’ argument?

Nozick proposed the 'Wilt Chamberlain' argument, based on a famous basketball player. Chamberlain was in demand, so included in his contract that 25 cents from each spectator went to him. One million people attended games he played throughout the season, earning him $250,000, much more than everyone eise.

According to Nozick, this payment is just and he should keep it all, as he earned it through his own labour and the contract was freely entered into by all parties.

Thomas Hobbes in context?

The English Civil Wars of the 1640s, convinced Hobbes of the need for a strong and powerful state that would prioritise peace and order over individual rignts.

Edmund Burke in context?

The French Revolution in the late eighteenth century made Burke hostile to violent revolution and states based on abstract ideas. Instead, he valued the notion of a 'natural' and organic state.

Michael Oakeshott in context?

The experience both of the Second World War and the postwar welfare state led Oakeshott to emphasise the importance of pragmatism by governments. He also rejected the ideas of utopian societies, both left and right wing.

Ayn Rand in context?

Growing up auring the Russian Revolution gave Rand an intense hatred of socialism and collectivism.

Her subsequent experiences in the USA and the growth of the federal government there led her to fear a similar restriction on individual freedom in the USA as well.

Robert Nozick in context?

Writing in a similar period to Rand, Nozick too emphasised individual freedom and rejected the higher taxes that an expanded post-war state required from its citizens. He was writing, in part, to challenge the new liberal ideas of his Harvard contemporary John Rawls.