psych exam revision

iffy terms only

accuracy

how close a measure relates to the ‘true’ value of the quantity being measured

acronym

a pronounceable word formed from the first letters of a group of words

acrostic

in relation to a mnemonic, making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing a sentence, phrase or other composition using the first letters of the information to be remembered

adaptive behaviour any behaviour that enables the individual to adjust to the environment appropriately and effectively; compare with maladaptive behaviour

adrenaline

a hormone secreted during stress; also called epinephrine

Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder

a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by a shift of the major sleep episode to an earlier time compared to desired or conventional sleep times, resulting in sleep onset and awakening much earlier than desired and excessive sleepiness; see also circadian rhythm sleep disorder; compare with Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome

afferent pathway

a neural pathway that carries information towards the brain or spinal cord (e.g. sensory information); compare with efferent pathway

agonist

a chemical agent (e.g. drug) that stimulates neurotransmitter activity; compare with antagonist

alarm reaction

the first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome in which the body goes into a temporary state of shock, then rebounds (counter shock), following initial awareness of a stressor

alpha brain wave pattern

associated with a relaxed, calm, internally focussed wakeful state of consciousness

altered state of consciousness

any state of consciousness that is distinctly different from normal waking consciousness or any waking state in terms of level of awareness and experience

Alzheimer’s disease

a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes

amygdala

processes and regulates emotional reactions, involved in formation and consolidation of a wide range of emotional variables

anecdote

an informal verbal report of an event that has been casually observed

antecedent

stimulus an object or event that precedes a specific behaviour and signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour

anxiety

a state of arousal involving unpleasant feelings of apprehension or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen

aphantasia

absence of visual imagery

autobiographical memory

a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life; compare with episodic memory

basal ganglia

involved in the generation of voluntary movements and long-term implicit memories involving motor skills

benzodiazepines

a group of drugs that work on the central nervous system, acting selectively on GABA receptors in the brain to increase GABA’s inhibitory effects and make postsynaptic neurons resistant to excitation; commonly called sedatives or mild tranquilisers

beta brain wave

pattern associated with alertness and intensive mental activity during normal waking consciousness; also present during REM sleep dreams

bright light therapy

a technique for treating circadian rhythm sleep disorders that uses timed exposure of the eyes to light with the aim of shifting an individual’s sleep-wake cycle to a desired, more appropriate or conventional schedule

case study

an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation

cerebellum

structure at the base of the brain with multiple roles, including coordination of fine muscle movements, regulation of posture and balance, and various perceptual and cognitive processes; in relation to memory, involved in formation of long-term motor skill memories and stores implicit memories of simple conditioned reflexes

circadian rhythm

a biological rhythm involving physiological, psychological or behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle with a duration of about 24 hours; compare with ultradian rhythm

circadian rhythm sleep disorder

a sleep disorder involving sleep disturbance that is primarily due to a mismatch between an individual’s sleep–wake pattern and the pattern that is desired or required

confounding variable

a variable other than the independent variable that has affected the results (the dependent variable) and whose effect(s) cannot be separated from that of the independent variable, thereby providing an alternative explanation(s) for the results; compare with extraneous variable

correlation coefficient

a statistic used to describe the relationship between two variables

counter shock

in the General Adaptation Syndrome, rebound from the temporary state of shock during the initial alarm reaction stage

Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome

a condition in which the major sleep episode is delayed in relation to the desired sleep time or what is considered a conventional time; see also circadian rhythm sleep disorder

delta brain wave

pattern associated with deep, dreamless sleep or unconsciousness

dopamine

a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator with multiple functions depending on where it acts; functions include roles in coordinating movement, learning and behaviours that are rewarding

double blind

a procedure in which both the participants and the experimenter(s) interacting with them are unaware of the conditions to which the participants have been allocated; compare with single blind

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory for incoming auditory information that stores sounds in their original sensory form for about 3 or 4 seconds

efferent pathway

a neural pathway that carries information away from the brain or spinal cord (e.g. motor information); compare with afferent pathway

elaborative rehearsal

the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other information to aid its storage and future retrieval from long-term memory; compare with maintenance rehearsal

encoding

in relation to memory, conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory

enteric nervous system

a sub-division of the autonomic nervous system embedded within the walls of the gastrointestinal (digestive) tract and dedicated to its functioning

enterotype

describes the unique combination of gut microbiota each individual possesses

entrainment

process of adjusting or resetting a biological rhythm to align with external cues or an environmental cycle

episodic memory

the long-term explicit memory of personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place

explicit memory

long-term memory that can be consciously retrieved and stated (‘memory with awareness’); see also episodic memory and semantic memory; compare with implicit memory

field experiment

a psychological experiment that is conducted outside the laboratory in a ‘real-world’ setting

functioning

generally refers to how well an individual independently performs or operates in their environment

gut–brain axis

a bidirectional, multi-faceted communication link between the central and enteric nervous systems

habituation

the process of growing accustomed to a stimulus and decreasing responsiveness to it; also called habituation learning

hippocampus

crucial role in the formation, encoding and consolidation of new long-term explicit memories and their transfer to the cortex for storage

hypnogram

a sleep graph typically showing sleep types and stages in relation to time

iconic memory

visual sensory memory for incoming visual information that stores visual images in their original sensory form for about a third of a second

implicit memory

long-term memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval (‘memory without awareness’); see also procedural memory and classically conditioned memory; compare with explicit memory

integrity 

in relation to research ethics, the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding

justice

in relation to research ethics, moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action

long-term depression

the long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic connections and transmission and neuronal response; compare with long-term potentiation

long-term potentiation

the long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission due to repeated strong stimulation; compare with long-term depression

maintenance rehearsal

repetition of information over and over again so that it can be kept in short-term memory; compare with elaborative rehearsal

maladaptive behaviour

any behaviour that interferes with a person’s ability to successfully adjust to the environment and fulfil their typical roles in society; compare with adaptive behaviour

melatonin

a hormone secreted by the pineal gland in relation to the amount of light that is detected; influences alertness and drowsiness and timing of the sleep–wake cycle; a higher melatonin level is associated with greater drowsiness and vice versa

mental process generally refers to a person’s thoughts, feelings and other mental activities that cannot be directly observed; compare with behaviour

memory bias

a type of cognitive bias involving distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs and feelings on the recollection of previous experiences

method of loci

a mnemonic device for which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific locations; also called memory palace or mind palace

mindfulness meditation

a type of meditation in which a person focuses attention on their breathing, whilst thoughts, feelings, and sensations are experienced freely as they arise; involves paying attention, noticing, experiencing, doing and being, right here, right now

mnemonic

any technique used to assist memory; see acronym, acrostic, method of loci, songlines

negative punishment

the removal or loss of a desirable stimulus thereby weakening or decreasing the likelihood of a response recurring again; compare with positive punishment

negative reinforcement

the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, thereby strengthening or making a desired response more likely to reoccur; compare with positive reinforcement

neocortex

interacts with the hippocampus in the formation , consolidation and storage and retrieval of long-term explicit memory

phobia

a persistent and irrational fear of a particular object, activity or situation, which is consequently either strenuously avoided or endured with marked distress

positive punishment

presentation of an unpleasant stimulus that weakens a response or decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again; compare with negative punishment

positive reinforcement

presentation of a positive reinforcer following a desired response; compare with negative reinforcement

precision

how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other

primary appraisal

in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, an individual’s evaluation of the significance of a potential stressor and whether anything is at stake in the encounter, resulting in a decision that it is either irrelevant, benign–positive or stressful; compare with secondary appraisal

procedural memory

the long-term implicit memory of skills that have been learned previously

psychoeducation

the provision and explanation of information to individuals about a mental health disorder to assist their understanding of its characteristics and treatment

reliability

the extent to which a measure produces results that are consistent, dependable and stable

respect

in relation to research ethics, consideration of, and due regard to, the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value

secondary appraisal

in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, an individual’s evaluation of their ability to control or overcome a stressful situation; compare with primary appraisal

self-determination

the human right to freely determine or control one’s political status and freely pursue one’s cultural, social and economic development

self-stigma

when an individual accepts the negative views and reactions of others, internalises them, and applies them to themself; see also social stigma

semantic memory

long-term explicit memory of facts and knowledge about the world; compare with episodic memory

serotonin

a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator with multiple functions depending on where it acts; functions include emotional processing, mood, and sleep onset

shift work disorder

a circadian rhythm sleep disorder due to work shifts being regularly scheduled during the usual sleep period; work shifts overlap with all or part of the sleep period, requiring adjustment of sleep and wake times to the work times; see also circadian rhythm sleep disorder

scientific investigation methodology

the specific techniques used to collect and analyse data in an investigation

sleep

a regularly occurring altered state of consciousness that typically occurs naturally and is primarily characterised by partial or total suspension of conscious awareness

sleep debt

the accumulated amount of sleep loss due to insufficient sleep

sleep disorder

any sleep disturbance that is persistent and regularly disrupts sleep, causing distress or impairment in important areas of everyday life during normal waking hours

sleep hygiene

practices that tend to improve and maintain good sleep and full daytime alertness

sleep inertia

a temporary period of reduced alertness and performance impairment that occurs immediately after awakening, especially after a poor night’s sleep and if abruptly awakened

sleep latency

the length of time it takes to transition from being awake to being asleep

sleep onset

the transition period from being awake to being asleep

social and emotional wellbeing (SEWB)

in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, a holistic, multi-dimension framework that describes and explains physical, social, emotional, spiritual and cultural wellbeing

songline

a navigational route comprising a sequence of locations used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples which may also serve as mnemonic; also called dreaming track

specific phobia

an anxiety disorder characterised by marked and persistent fear about a specific object, activity or situation, typically avoided or endured with marked anxiety or distress

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

an area of the brain’s hypothalamus that regulates the timing and activity of the sleep–wake cycle (and other biological rhythms); see also biological clock

systematic desensitisation

a behaviour therapy for treatment of specific phobia that aims to replace an anxiety response with relaxation when an individual encounters a fear-inducing, phobic stimulus

systematic error

a measurement error produced by some factor that consistently favours one condition rather than another

theta brain wave

pattern associated with drowsiness, falling asleep and creative activities

ultradian rhythm

a biological rhythm involving physiological, psychological or behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle shorter than 24 hours; compare with circadian rhythm

validity

the extent to which a measure accurately measures what it is supposed to be measuring; see also internal validity and external validity

vicarious conditioning

in observational learning, when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished and later behaves in the same way, in a modified way, or refrains from doing so as a result of the observation

zeitgeber

an environmental time cue