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Bowles and Gintis
Correspondence theory we obey school authority as we would in the workplace, the myth of meritocracy/education- children are not offered equal opportunities in education that is a myth that we believe blindly
Althusser (Marxist)
Alienation - w/c children feel alienated by spec that is not relevant to them- don't try/ misbehave and attain lower grades, textbooks promote capitalism as the only working economic system. Institutions that spread bourgeoise ideology and ensure that the proletariat is in a state of false class consciousness.
Willis
lads- w/c children opted out of boring school work in the form of counter school culture in the same way that they will go on to mess about at work shop-floor culture -lower grades= lower paid jobs and equal dissatisfaction in both
Bourdieu
Cultural reproduction- m/c parents have the cultural capital to get their children into the best schools and their children will go on to achieve the best grades and highest paid jobs, w/c parents do not have the means to do this- their children will attend schools in catchment areas and fulfil lower paid jobs within society - inequality between w/c and m/c is maintained and reproduced
Rikowski
marxism is more relevant than ever now because businesses are more entangled with schools and schools have become successful on an international level - one day schools will be about making profit rather than providing an education
Heaton and Lawson
Hidden curriculum-5 strains: patriarchal curriculum, lack of positive role models, resources- textbooks displaying women in certain roles/ dependent on men, teachers attitudes -boys asked to move heavy furniture, alienation in certain subjects (IT)
Marx
claimed in the latter stages of capitalism, social institutions (such as education, health and other social services) will increasingly become commodified, and brought under the reigns of the market with the aim of producing profit.
Kelly
women are invisible in science text books
Toby Young
Free schools- provide a safe and protected space for teachers to trial new and potentially more effective methods of teaching
Stephan Ball
Free schools provide a 'patchwork of provision'- inconsistencies in teaching and learning.- education system is unequal as some will get more opportunities than others
Chubb and Moe (New Right)
state education is ineffective this is because private schools have to answer directly to the paying consumer and can therefore demand more from their schools. He says we should make schools into a competitive market place where parents have a choice of where to send their children.
Saunders (NR)
Intelligence theory- m/c are biologically more intelligent and should therefore attain the best education and highest paid jobs
Illich (Liberal)
'Deschooling of society' -children shouldnt go to school- instead they should learn via knowledge webs -put into contact with people who know the thing that the child wants to learn
Halsey
After the 1944 election act, class differences in attainment still persist with m/c children attaining higher grades and being more likely to go to uni.
Holland
if we pump money into the education system and encourage more people to go to university we will have a highly qualified workforce-wage rates will increase and subsequently the economy would be boosted.
Hargreaves: Deviance in classrooms
How teachers classify students. Speculation-guess about students based on appearance,willingness to conform and how likeable they are. Working Hypothesis-teachers forming theories based on interactions. Elaboration -test theory with greater interactions. Stabilisation-teacher thinks they know the student and categorises behaviours by how they've been typed.
Gillborn and Youdell:Exam settings
w/c more likely to be typed negatively. Setting relies more heavily on typings rather than objective measures of ability. W/C placed in foundation level at GCSE more readily.
Dunne and Gazeley: Class teachers expectations
Out of 88 pupils that were under achievers 70 per cent were working class. Teachers commented more positively on m/c parents and children and held more negative predictions for w/c children - crime, early pregnancy and poor educational achievement. Social class underpinned teachers perceptions and labels of children.
Rosenthal and Jacobson : Self- Fulfilling prophecy
IQ tested children in cali. Randomly selected 20 per cent of these children without telling the teachers. Teachers were working old to expect great progress from these students over the next year,
. Experimenters returned with IQ. On average these children had made the most progress. R+J speculated that these higher expectations had been communicated to the children.
Gillborn and Youdell 2
Setting places w/c and ethnic minorities at a disadvantage.
Ireson and Hallam
Studied 45 comprehensive schools and found that the amount of setting between yr 7 and 11 doesn't impact GCSE attainment.
William and Bartholomew
Pupils in a higher set for maths were slightly advantaged but those in a lower set were disadvantaged- labelling theory.
Hargreaves: Conformists and Delinquents (2)
All boys school. 2 subcultures- those who worked hard to achieve academic success and those who adopted an anti-school culture-misbehaving etc. Labelling theory- these delinquents were largely from lower streams such as the w/c. The suffered from "status frustration" and tried to gain respect from peers instead.
Woods: Differing Pupils strategies
Some conform/rebel in different situations ( maybe depending on the subject). Different state gives used to survive schools. Some conformists behave well but have little motivation for success.
Mac an Ghaill: W/C male subcultures
Academic achievers- pro school, top sets from skilled w/c backgrounds. Macho lads -rejected authority, anti school, based on looking tough, laughing and looked out for mates. New enterprisers -wished to succeed in subjects with vocational value such as IT and business. Real Englishmen- m/c background, attitude of effortless superiority- achieved good results without the impression of trying.
Smith and Noble (material deprivation)
Having money allows parents to provide educational books, healthy diet, school trips, and private tuition. However schools now charge for trips which working class families may not be able to afford, which means social class can hinder or improve educational achievement.
Blanden and Gregg (material deprivation)
Direct relationship between income and educational attainment. £140 less than the mean average income reduces the probability of the child attaining A* to C grade at GCSE.
Callender and Jackson (material deprivation)
"Debt Aversion"- fear of getting into to debt from students loans , tuition fees and living costs. Discouraged some students from a lower income backgrounds from going to uni.
Feinstein (cultural deprivation)
Data from 2 longitudinal surveys on factors effecting children's' success in education-found that class differences in ability were apparent from an early age+ concluded that class differences in parental interest and support was thee most significant factor
Bernstein (cultural deprivation)
Differing uses of language are at the root of class differences in success. He said that working class children used restricted code-simplistic speech used when describing something familiar. But, m/c children can switch between this and elaborated code (more complex and doesn't rely on previous knowledge- allows them to understand new information) This enhances class inequalities as m/c children can write in a way which allows them to achieve top mark bands within their subjects. This relies on socialisation and how the children were raised to speak.
Labov (cultural factor)
Questioned whether black w/c speech was inferior to standard English spoken by w. m/c people. He concluded that black speech was more colourful and descriptive and should be treated as a non-standard English with its own grammatical rules- education only rewards/caters for one type of language.
Bourdieu (Cultural capital)
Rejects cultural deprivation as it implies that w/c culture is inferior.
Role of education is cultural reproduction whereby class inequalities are repeated in the next generation.
Sullivan
Survey of questionnaires of children in four schools approaching school leaving age.S/C measured by the highest status job of their parents. Cultural capital measured by: What books they read, what TV shows they watch, whether they could play a musical instrument and attendance at museums etc. Wanted to see whether a higher level of cultural capital reflected GCSE results (correlation)-found that watching more sophisticated TV shows associated with gaining better results.
Reay
middle-class mothers use cultural capital to their advantage, but both w/c and m/c mothers worked hard to try to ensure their child's success within school-m/c have confidence, certainty and a sense of entitlement
Ball
M/C parents can use their cultural capital to play the system and get their children into preferred schools e.g appeals, good impression on head teacher.
Power
M/C children can sometimes have limited leisure time. E.g time taken to travel to school, extra time on homework, clubs-only socialising with others with high levels of cultural capital-drives theirs up.
Platt (EF)
Ethnic minorities in the UK have much higher levels of poverty and much lower rates of employment than white people. Particularly for Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Black Africans. Material factors are a large source of deprivation for these children.
Archer and Francis (EF)
Aspirations of Chinese parents - both m/c and w/c Chinese students do extremely well within the English education system-highest performing ethnic group-Parents invest lots of money, time and energy into their children's education and have high aspirations for their children. STRONG CULTURAL ATTACHMENT TO EDUCATION
Strand (EF)
Attitudes of white British people= w. w/c males and females have the lowest attainment at GCSE along with Black Caribbean boys-people who have experienced poverty for long periods of time may believe that the education system wont change anything- doesnt explain low attainment of Black Caribbean boys -teachers expectations
Dustmann (EF)
Children with English as their second language appear to catch up with white peers as they progress through school-second language does not appear to be a disadvantage in the long-run. However, Black Caribbean pupils make less progress than other ethnic minority students despite English being their first language.
Sewell (EF)
Overlooks institutionalised racism and suggests that African Caribbeans should be held accountable for their own underachievement- links to the culture. Academic success is seen as effeminate so boys try to gain status and respect through gang culture.
Institutionalised Racism
Ethnic minority students are treated less favourable within school based on how the ed. sys. is organised-doesn't consider needs of ethnic minority children.
Ethnocentric Curriculum
Focuses on the culture of white people e.g teaching western European languages, British history-ignoring other historical events.
Multi-cultural education
Equal status to all cultures-removal of negative images of ethnic minority groups from textbooks and promoting black history month.
Vincent et al
Attitudes of black, m/c parents- studied black m/c parents who were interested in their child's education and had high aspirations for them- many teachers still had preconception that these parents were less interested and less involved in their child's education.
Gillborn and Youdell
Racialised expectations. Teachers quicker to discipline black pupils than others for same behaviour. Processes worked against black students -more focused on punishment and control of black students than academic concerns.
Mirza
Myth of underachievement for black women. Most girls studied were confident in their own abilities but felt that their teachers shut them down and didnt give them a chance to prove themselves. She found that most black girls valued academic success and worked hard to achieve it despite some teachers working against them.
Mac an Ghaill
Young, gifted and black- found that students who were subjected to the most negative labelling and racism did not hold the most negative attitudes towards education-determined to prove that they were wrong about black people. Girls band together to get high grade and good marks but refuse to conform to school rules 'resistance within accommodation.
History of education Pre-1870
School was voluntary and run by religious institutions- had to pay a fee. Moslty only wealthy boys would go to school and be educated. Followed a policy of Laissez -Faire ( leave alone)- government was not involved.
The 1870 Forster Act
Took 10 years to put into place - school became compulsory. LEAs created in order to control and ansure standards of schools were being met.-School leaving age was 14, parents still had to pay a fee-not every one could go.
The 1944 Butler Act
Introduced the tripartite system-(grammar, secondary modern, technical)- all students sat an 11+ exam to determine their destination. Free education for all children- p[ay back fro the losses of the wars.
1965-1979 Education Under the Labour Party
Abolished the tripartite system and replaced them with comprehensive schools -massive investments in education and created the OU.-Invested in poverty stricken areas called Educational Priority Areas (EPAs).
School leaving age raised to 16. Teachers experimented with 'Progressive Education' -teach what they wanted and mixed all abilities together.
1979-1996 Thatcher and the conservatives: New Vocationalism
New Vocationalism-New education system was failing to provide children with the right skills. Government introduced a YTS (youth training scheme) (1998) where unemployed school leavers were required to undertake training with employers and recieve vocational training in college. GNVQs- Gneral National Vocational Qualifications introduced -later replaced with BTECs. Consequences = No guarunteed job at the end-exploitation+ no parity of esteem- GNVQs were seen as less valuable than A levels.
1979-1996 Thatcher +conservatives: Marketisation
Marketisation-Education introduced external businesses as education delivered by market froces is considered more efficient and responsible for consumer demand-Introduced formula funding-fundings for schools based on number of enrolments - successful schools had more applicants and therefore more funding. Consequences-Led to the creation of sink schools - schools which already had a poor repuation recieved less funding due to lack of applicants- sunk further in level of success.- Created a divide between very good and poor schools.
Thatcher 1979-1996: Education Reform Act
Education Reform Act- aimed to create a national system which gave parenst greater choice within their area of where to send their children. Key Elements:Parental choice-comprehensives offered little parental choice, open enrolment -Number of students=amount of funding and aimed to increase diversity of schools. Consequences= M/C parents had the cultural capital to play the system and get their kids into the best schools -reproducing class inequalities+ choice indicates lack of standardisation- Ball-Patchwork of provision.
Thatcher 1979-1996: National Curriculum
National Curriculum-Central government dictated what was taught and this was taught in all schools . COre subjects-maths, english and science+GCSEs introduced. Consequences-May not suit all children's abilities and may be eurocentric -disadvantaging ethnic minority students. But, for the first time, boys and girls learned the same subjects.
Thatcher 1979-1996 League Tables
League tables-1992- secondary schools obliged to publish their results and these results were then made into leauge tables-encouraging competetion. Consequences-Not a fair reflection of quality of education within schools - league tables to enhance sink schools- disadvantaging many students.
1979-1996 Thatcher Ofsted
Ofsted- Office for standards in Education-93, insoecting schools very 4 years and providing reports on perform,anceof schools - all parents to make decisions on where nto send kids.
1997 Blair New Labour Sure start (LW)
Sure start- offered pre-school children and families in disadvantaged areaswith a variety of support-play centres, home visits and child care assistance.
New Labour- Third way Politics (LW)
Third Way politcis included Both left and right ideals when reforming the education system
1997 Blair New Labour: EAZs (LW)
EZAs - education action Zones -raised motivation in deprived, low income areas- £1 million to spend in each area.
1997 Blair New Labour: Academies (LW)
Academies-REplace 'Failing' comprehensive schools -boost attainment of children in the most deprived areas. Mark 1 Academies closed down and relaunched with a heavy amount of funding.
1997 Blair New Labour: EMAs (LW)
EMAs- Increased the Number of 16-18 year olds within education by paying people who were more disadvantaged to stay in school. W/C more likely to drop out of education at 16- may have to get a job to support family. Educational Maintenence Allowances
1997 Blair New Labour: Higher Education (LW)
Higher education Labour aimed to make sure that at least half of all school leavers went to a form of higher education-including people from poorer social backgrounds. However, this actually widened the gap between classes as additional places were taken up by higher class students. +Created Tuition fees
+ Created new types of Unis
+ extended existing universities
1997 Blair New Labour: Specialist Schools (NR)
Specialist Schools- making more failing comprehensives into specialists to increase the amount of funding coming in. By 2007, Over 75% of all secondary schools were specialist- aimed to increase variety and competition
1997 Blair New Labour: Performance targets and league tables (NR)
Performance targets and League tables-Set performace targets to try to improve standards-League tables weere starting to record progress of students beween starting schools and leaving.
1997 Blair New Labour (NR): Vocational Education and Training
Vocational education and training -new deal fro young people-18-24 year olds who had been out of work for 6 months-provided with personal advisors to help them get a job. Got rid of NVQs and GNVQs and replaced them with BTEQs -equivalent to GCSEs and A levels -greater parity of esteem as status was improved.
Curriculum 2000
Curriclum 2000- A levels were divided into 2 years
AS-year one-exam at the end, AS-year 2 -exam at the end-designed for less academic students who would benefit from being tested on smaller modules at a time.
Coalition Government (CG) 2010-2015
Liberal democrats and conservative party formed a coalition government. They announced that they wished to turn schools into 'engines of social mobility' and a place where children 'overcome the accidents of birth and social background'.
Recession- cutbacks (time of austerity)
CG - Introduction of pupil premium
Social democrats-additional payment to schools for every free school meal child enrolled. This money was to aid educational achievement for poorer students but many headteachers felt it made up fro cuts elsewhere in educational funding.
CG - Removal of EMA and sure start
EMA and sure start (NR)-school leaving age was raised to 18 so every student had to go to school anyways - no payment as they had to attend either way Sure start schemes scrapped due to cuts in funding.
CG - The extension of academy Schemes
New right policy where all schools were given the right to convert into academies , Mark 1 - some schools were instructed to change into academies because they were failing as comprehensives. Converter academies - those chosen to become academies to be financially better off - Marketisation
CG - The introduction of free schools
Free schools- NR- First opened in 2011-accelerate marketisation-independent schools funded by the state-greater freedom and can design curriculum
CG - Increase University tuition fees
Increase university tuition fees-raised from £3,290 to £9000/ year.- necessary to fund the growing number of students attending university. However, applicants were down by 10 % in 2012.
Sharpe
Changing social attitudes- women in 90s more career focused and want to be successful in school rather than prioritising marriage and families.
Francis and Skelton
M/C parents now try to motivate their girls to do well within education
Arnot
Increased number of secondary school teachers who are women- more positive role models for young girls-working and successful women-being 'too clever' will not make them unattractive to men.
Beck
Individualisation and risk society- women need to have careers in order to support themselves financially in case of relationship break down.
Hannan
Boys learn by doing, girls relate to peers by talking- women learn key language skills from a young age -enabling them to do well at school. Girls are encouraged to have higher aspirations now.
Burns and Bracey
Girls tend to draft and re draft - get the best possible outcome.
Mac An Ghaill
Crisis of masculinity- loss of manufacturing, male typed jobs- women's jobs have increased- men losing their status as the breadwinners -w. w/c males, globalisation and the growth of the service sector.
Willis
Lad culture-male -w/c anti school subcultures. Laddish behaviour -lack of success.
Francis
Boys are over confident in their abilities- feel that they don't have to revise for exams -lower results at the end. + boys have less academic and more unlikely ambitions e.g professional footballer.
Tikly
Institutionalised racism-found that African Caribbean students were aware of their invisibility in the curriculum - were frustrated by he focus on white people and Europe.
Gillborn
white people are twice as likely to be selected for gifted and talented programmes than black students
McRobbie
Women are influenced by magazines-love over careers-romantic
Griffin
Females drop out of school early to get a job and avoid housework
Deem
school curriculum-teachers encourage female to take/ not take certain subjects
Clark
Learning and education is seen as effeminate. 'Laddism'-avoid trying hard
HESA
Women going to uni-1,289,090, men going to uni-1,010,035
Archer
Hyper feminine girls-girls can form anti school subcultures as well as boys- many w/c girls aim to leave school early and adopt a sexualised hyper feminine identity- being considered sexually attractive is an important source of status
Jackson
Women adopt laddette cultures in order to be seen as cool in front f boys
Dunscombe
Laddette culture is adopted in order to avoid being seen as a stereotypical weak woman
Griffin 2
White w/c women during first 2 years of employment created small friendship groups -their deviance was defined by sexual behaviour rather than trouble making
Mac An Ghaill (Gay students)
These students commented on heterosexist and homophobic nature of schools.-Took for granted the naturalness of heterosexual relationships and nuclear families.
Gender apartheid
economic and social sexual discrimination against individuals because of their gender
Stats about gender apartheid
In sub Saharan Africa -only 23% of poor rural girls complete their primary education.
In Yemen, 92% of the poorest young women have not completed primary school, in comparison to 475 of the poorest young men
Gender parity index
-ratio of boys to girls enrolled at different levels of education
Education in the democratic republic of Congo -UNESCO
-Fighting since 1994
-Children going to school relies on whether they live in a conflict region or are rich/poor
-Almost all children aged 7-11 in the capital city-Kinshasa have been to school-male or female
-In conflict affected regions, 1/3 of poorest children have never been to school
-poorest girls worse off than boys -44% never been in comparison to 17%
Bangladesh -UNESCO/Steer et al
-In 2011, only 6% of those aged 7-16 had never been to school
-Country pays cash to parents who send their girls to school
-One of the few LICs which have more girls in edcuation than boys
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