The World Since 1492 All Key Terms

culture

Invented knowledge and practices uniquely human, circulating and evolving over time. It's not tied to a specific group, can be shaped by geography, and is in constant motion

Importance: This concept is crucial for understanding how human societies develop and change over time. For example, in the context of trade and cultural exchange, we see how Buddhism spread along trade routes around 400 BCE, reaching Europe by 1100 CE and appearing as figures like Balaam and Josaphat⁠. This demonstrates how culture is not tied to a specific group and can be shaped by geography and historical events.

functional

Aspects of culture that aid survival, though culture is not solely about meeting needs

Importance: While culture has functional aspects, it's important to note that not all cultural practices are purely functional. For instance, the Kula trade system in Pacific islands involves elaborate bracelets and necklaces that are valued for their history and artistry, rather than just their practical use⁠3⁠. This shows how culture goes beyond mere survival needs.

universal propensities, diverse manifestations

Traits common to all humans (like language) but expressed differently across cultures

Importance: Language is a prime example of this concept. While all human societies have language (a universal trait), no single language form is universally communicative⁠1⁠. This highlights how universal human traits can manifest differently across cultures.

profit

A gain in quantitative units of value or wealth through trade or other means

Importance: The concept of profit has been crucial in shaping trade systems and economic structures. For example, trade for profit was practiced around Afro-Eurasia, involving slow-moving, small quantities of luxury goods⁠. The Dutch East India Company (VOC), established in the early 17th century, was focused purely on monetary gains, in contrast to earlier Portuguese ventures that were more interested in power⁠.

luxury/subsistence goods

Luxury goods are slow-moving, small quantities of goods traded over established routes

Importance: Understanding the distinction between these types of goods helps us comprehend historical trade patterns. Luxury goods like spices (nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves), Chinese silk, and gold were key exports from various regions and traded over established routes⁠. This contrasts with subsistence goods like cereals and dry fish, which were more locally traded⁠.

money

Quantitative units of value, often represented by culturally valued metals like gold and copper

Importance: The concept of money as quantitative units of value has been crucial in facilitating trade and economic systems. Historically, culturally valued metals like gold and copper were often used as money⁠. For instance, Gao, a city along the Niger River, provided a significant portion of the world's gold supply, making it an important player in global trade⁠.⁠

kula

A non-profit trade system from Pacific islands, involving elaborate bracelets and necklaces valued for their history and artistry

Importance: This non-profit trade system from Pacific islands, dating back at least 500 years, provides an important contrast to profit-driven trade models. Kula trade involves elaborate bracelets and necklaces exchanged in restricted spheres, gaining value through their history and embedded stories⁠. This system demonstrates how human societies can have diverse economic practices that aren't solely focused on profit.

climate change

Major shifts in climate, temperature, and weather patterns over a period of time

Importance: Major climate shifts have significantly impacted human societies. For example, from the 12th to the 15th centuries, climate changes in Africa led to southward migrations, affecting the spread of cultures and traditions. This demonstrates how climate change can reshape human settlements and cultural diffusion. Climate change caused crop failures in the 1500s, which led to rising prices and affected silver flow in trade⁠

city

an area of such dense inhabitation that it cannot provide for its own subsistence, and vice-versa, as it were, an area of such dense inhabitation that it produces more waste (human particularly) that it is healthy to live with. If cities do not minimally address the first of these problems, they will cease to exist. However, they can largely ignore the second problem and continue, if in a distinctly smell-filled and often unhealthy way. Because they must extract subsistence from somewhere else, cities manifest a boundary between, or a separation of, the city and countryside. With industrialization, the above definition of a city comes to be too broad (it includes social sites that are not recognized as cities), since with industrialization, huge parts of the world cease being able to feed themselves, and thus this lack of capacity for subsistence no longer distinguishes cities from, say, what emerges as suburbs. But in the world at 1500ish, this is a workable definition.

Importance: The concept of cities is crucial for understanding historical trade and urbanization. By 1500, Africa had greater urbanization than Latin Christendom. Cities like Gao, along the Niger River, were important commercial centers. Gao was known for collecting gold and even purchased tombstones from the Iberian Peninsula, showcasing long-distance trade connections.

entrepôt

Urban commercial centers in Africa that served as hubs for trade

Importance: These urban commercial centers were vital to African trade networks. Cities along the Nile River and in desert regions collected taxes from trade. The Swahili coast, with its robust economy trading gold, ivory, and slaves, exemplifies the importance of entrepôts in facilitating commerce between Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and South Asia.

state

A fairly large population found in a fairly large territory under a fairly large common rule

Importance: Understanding state formation helps us comprehend historical power structures. The Mali Empire, founded around 1200 CE near the Bure gold area, exerted authority over 40-50 million people, demonstrating the scale and influence of African states

gold

A valuable metal

Importance: Gold played a crucial role in shaping trade networks and economies. Africa produced about two-thirds of the world's gold, primarily from the Middle Niger area⁠⁠. This abundance attracted Portuguese traders and influenced European commerce. A notable example is Mansa Musa's pilgrimage in 1324, where he traveled with 60,000 people, showcasing Mali's immense wealth derived from gold⁠.

separate (or restricted) sphere of exchange

A type of trade that is restricted to certain characteristics?

Importance: This concept is exemplified by the Kula trade, where specific items can only be exchanged for one another within a particular system⁠. Understanding this helps us recognize the complexity and diversity of economic systems across cultures.

whomsoevers

whoever. ex. kula trade was with certain individuals, not whomsoevers

porosity

The interconnectedness between continents, allowing for the flow of genes, pathogens, and culture across boundaries

Importance: This concept is evident in the spread of agricultural practices. For example, bananas, which were introduced to Africa through the Indian Ocean trade, facilitated labor efficiency and population growth in Central Africa. Similarly, coconuts were introduced through Indian Ocean trade and became integral to Swahili culture.

developmental or social evolutionary stages

This concept is challenged in the context, suggesting that human development is not linear or universal

Importance: These concepts are challenged by the fact that by 1500 CE, Africa had greater urbanization than Latin Christendom⁠⁠. This contradicts the notion of Africa as "primitive" or less developed.

"primitive"

A term often applied to Africa, contrasting it with the perceived progress of European civilization. The notes suggest rejecting this categorization

modes of livelihood as resources, not as developmental stages

This perspective views different ways of life (e.g., foraging, farming) as adaptations to available resources rather than steps in a linear progression

Importance: This perspective is supported by the coexistence of different lifestyles. For instance, around 1000 BCE, agricultural practices were introduced in southern Africa but didn't replace mobile foraging. This shows that different modes of livelihood adapted to available resources rather than following a linear progression.

grains or cereal grains

Crops like wheat, rice, barley, and corn, noted for their nutritional value

cultivars

Human-crafted plants bred for specific characteristics.

ex. potatoes → 10,000 yrs ago (Inca)

Maize and Cotton -> 6,000 yrs ago (inca)

mnazi

The Swahili term for coconut palm, celebrated for its importance in Swahili culture.

Importance: Introduced through Indian Ocean trade, the coconut palm became celebrated in Swahili culture, demonstrating the impact of trade on local cultures⁠.

"slavery" as contextually particular

slavery in African contexts was not limited to plantation chattel slavery but was used in various ways, including food production.

ex. Indigenous people were initially used as slaves in Brazil.

About 5% of the Aztec Empire were slaves, including prisoners and adults facing economic hardship⁠, however, children of slaves were not necessarily slaves themselves⁠

sacrifice

an act of slaughtering an animal or person or surrendering a possession as an offering to God or to a divine or supernatural figure.

Importance: In Aztec culture (1400 to 1519 CE), human sacrifices were performed as public rituals, reinforcing state power. The Aztecs believed that gods had sacrificed themselves for celestial bodies, showing how sacrifice was integrated into their worldview and social structure

Circa (ca.) or -ish

Used to indicate approximate dates or gradual beginnings/endings when precise dates are unknown.

Importance: This term is crucial in historical studies when exact dates are unknown. For example, in the context of Chinese dynasties, we see this concept applied. The Tang Dynasty is dated as "681-907 CE," the Song Dynasty as "960-1279 CE," and the Jin Dynasty as "115-1234 CE"⁠⁠. The use of "circa" or "-ish" allows historians to provide approximate timeframes for events or periods where precise dating is impossible, giving us a general sense of when things occurred without claiming false precision.

Invention of tradition

The practice of making something new appear as if it has been long established, often to promote state and elite interests

Importance: This concept is exemplified in the Ming Dynasty of China (1368-1644 CE), where Neo-Confucianism was promoted as a long-established tradition to legitimize state projects and elite interests. Similarly, in 19th century India, the British East India Company created "uniform and standardized" interpretations of Hindu scriptures to justify their rule and reforms.

Neo-Confucianism

A dominant guiding principle in Chinese governance that incorporated elements of Buddhist meditation and emphasized patriarchy.

Importance: This became the dominant guiding principle in Chinese governance during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), incorporating elements of Buddhist meditation and emphasizing patriarchy⁠⁠. It continued to influence Chinese governance through the Ming Dynasty.

Bureaucracy

A system of government units defined by purpose or function, often featuring merit-based examinations for office positions

ex. the Crown in Latin Christendom was a bureaucracy

Meritocracy

A system where success in difficult exams allowed access to high positions, though not entirely egalitarian

Importance: The Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) innovated in bureaucracy, especially with the implementation of merit-based examinations for office positions⁠⁠. This system, while not entirely egalitarian, allowed for some social mobility based on exam performance.

Infrastructure

Physical structures and facilities used for state functions, such as grain storage and travel route

Importance: This term is crucial in understanding state development. In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), infrastructure projects like grain storage facilities and travel routes were built and maintained through labor taxes⁠1⁠. These projects were essential for state control and economic management.

Labor tax

A form of taxation where labor was used to build and maintain state infrastructure

Importance: The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) used labor taxes to build and maintain infrastructure such as grain storage facilities and travel routes⁠. A notable example is the restoration and extension of the Grand Canal in the 1400s.

Essentialism

The phenomenon of taking something located in a particular historical circumstance -- and making it into a fundamental trait or essence of a group

Important for understanding the conquest of mexico, as some of its explanations fall under essentialism

Dragons

In Chinese context, used to describe climate change and cosmic imbalance, often linked to the emperor's ability to manage such imbalances.

Importance: In the Chinese context, dragons were used to describe climate change and cosmic imbalance. The emperor's ability to manage these imbalances was seen as a justification for dynastic changes. State resilience was demonstrated during periods of climate instability, where innovative ways to send food were developed to maintain stability.

State resilience

The ability of a state to remain stable even through periods of instability, such as climate change

mita labor tax funded infrastructure projects that supported state resilience.

Resistance to state

Non-violent opposition to state policies, such as providing inaccurate census data

ex. Non-violent opposition in Ming Dynasty China, such as not participating in the census

The 1857 Mutiny was a form of resistance to East India Company rule. Distancing from the state can be seen in the criminalization of migration and the efforts to tie people to the land in colonial India.

Distancing from the state

Finding ways to avoid involvement in state projects and activities.

Importance: This concept is evident in various historical contexts. For instance, under the Ming dynasty, people fled to the hills to avoid participating in the census as it would increase the amount they were taxed.

religious authority

In Islam, this refers to the ulama who have the authority to decide correct religious law after the prophet.

ex. Islam: Authority lies with the ulama.

Importance: These concepts highlight the importance of religious law and governance in Islamic societies. The ulama's role in interpreting religious law after the prophet's death was crucial in shaping Islamic societies.

Jerusalem

A central religious site for Christians.

Importance: As a central religious site for Christians, it illustrates the importance of sacred spaces in shaping religious identity and political conflicts⁠.

Dar al Islam

The abode of Islam, referring to inhabited lands that uphold Islamic law

religious homogeneity

Religious homogeneity is the condition of having a uniform religious belief system within a group or society.

ex. Although Islam accepts Christian and Jewish prophets, they still declare Mohhamed as the final prophet

Importance: Religious homogeneity, the condition of having a uniform religious belief system within a society, became increasingly significant after 1492. Prior to this, many states were polysocial, allowing multiple religions to coexist. However, events like the Reconquista in Iberia, which led to the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Granada in 1492, marked a shift towards religious uniformity. This trend continued in colonial contexts, such as 19th century India, where British rule emphasized religious divisions through separate legal codes for Hindus and Muslims. These changes often coincided with major political shifts, significantly impacting religious minorities' rights and freedoms.

polysocial state

A state where people of multiple religions are allowed to worship and live under their respective religious laws.

ex. The Ottoman Empire in the 1500s was incredibly polysocial, tolerating a wide variety of religions.

This concept is crucial for understanding the religious tolerance that existed in many empires before 1492. For example, the Mughal Empire in the 16th century was polysocial, allowing religious diversity while demanding political obedience. This contrasts with later periods of religious homogeneity.

timar

Plots of taxed land with peasants, part of the Ottoman Empire's land system.

Importance: These systems were fundamental to the Ottoman Empire's governance and military structure.

kul

Slave administrators in the Ottoman Empire who could rise to power and even marry into the royal family

Importance: These systems were fundamental to the Ottoman Empire's governance and military structure.

meritocracy

A system where success in difficult exams allowed access to high positions, though not entirely egalitarian.

ex. Exams in the Song Dynasty based on Confucius that allowed one to attain a government job

devshirme

A tax that required Christians to give up adolescent boys, who were then converted to Islam and educated for government service

Importance: These systems were fundamental to the Ottoman Empire's governance and military structure.

harem

The personal household of the sultan, crucial to the Ottoman government structure. Women managing the harem had significant influence and access to the sultan.

Importance: Understanding the harem's role in Ottoman governance challenges simplistic views of gender roles in Islamic societies. Women in the harem had significant influence and could even lobby to fund public works⁠.

Household

A social unit defined as a personal relationship with a building, where one eats, sleeps, etc.

ex. Households appear in sedentary societies as a unit of social organization

Ayllu

A group of households connected by kinship, headed by a leader called Kuraka. It's organized geographically rather than hierarchically

Importance: In the Inca Empire (pre-1400 to 1438), the ayllu was a fundamental social unit. It was a group of households connected by kinship, headed by a Kuraka. This structure was crucial for organizing labor and resources in the empire.

Barter

Trade with people who have kinship ties, for mutual benefit.

ex. Ayllu's used bartering to take advantage of the microclimates throughout their land. Mita system was an example of bartering.

Mita

A labor tax system where a fixed number of people from an Ayllu cultivate and develop infrastructure.

Importance: The mita system, a form of labor tax, was used to cultivate and develop infrastructure. This system was essential for building roads, temples, and storing food for times of famine, contributing to state resilience.

Tribute goods

Goods produced only for the state, part of a restricted sphere of trade such as the kul system?

Traders in the Aztec empire produced certain textiles that were tribute goods

Textiles

Luxury goods that display social rank and identity, with tunics being symbols of power.

ex. In the Incan empire, textiles were used to symbolize one's power. Different patterns were representative of different degrees of power.

Calpulli

Initially small social groups with individual deities and land, which lost power under Aztec rule.

Importance: This term is crucial for understanding the evolution of Aztec social and political organization. Its changing role under different rulers demonstrates how the Aztec state centralized power over time⁠

Conquest

The process by which empires like the Inca and Aztec expanded, often through military suppression.

ex. The Aztec empire rapidly expanded through the conquest of land. The Aztec state would impose state power as a method of conquest.

Flowery Wars

Occasions in which ceremonial victories of Mexico fought against the enemy. Popular in Aztec culture. Used to provide ceremonial captures and prisoners of war for human sacrifice.

Importance: This practice provides insight into Aztec religious beliefs, political strategies, and social structures.

Latin Christendom

An area referring to Christian lands before modern Europe, not perfectly aligned with today's Europe. It reflects the division between forms of Christianity.

Importance: This term helps us understand the geographical and cultural boundaries of pre-modern Europe, highlighting the importance of religious identity over modern national identities

Feudalism

A system where land and protection were exchanged for labor and military service

Importance: Crucial for comprehending the social, economic, and political structure of medieval Europe from roughly the 9th to 15th centuries.

ex. The fall of the Roman Empire led to a split into East (Byzantine Empire) and West, emphasizing local authority and leading to the creation of feudalism.⁠​

Commons

Land held in common by all, for use by all.

Importance: Essential for understanding medieval agricultural practices and land use. The concept of commons was vital until the Enclosure Acts in England, which began in the 12th century but intensified in the 16th century, privatizing previously common land.

Serf and vassal

Serfs were people who worked land, paid labor tax and personal fees, and could use land in exchange. Vassals were lesser lords with a status parallel to serfs, owing service to overlords

Importance: Key to understanding social hierarchy in feudal society. Serfdom was widespread in Europe by the 6th century and remained a dominant form of agricultural labor until its gradual decline starting in the 14th century. The vassal system was formalized under Charlemagne in the 8th century.

Three orders

The feudal social order consisting of those who prayed (clergy), those who fought (nobility), and those who labored (peasants)

Importance: These terms reveal the rigid social structure of feudal society, where one's role and status were largely determined at birth⁠

Ascribed status

A social status assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life, with no choice about being in the 2nd or 3rd order.

ex. In feudalism in Latin Christendom, the second (those who fought), and the third (those who labored) were considered to have an ascribed status.

Vertical relationship

The hierarchical structure of authority, such as in the Church or feudal system, where higher levels have authority over lower levels.

ex. higher levels like the Pope and bishops have authority over lower levels such as priests and laypeople.

This concept is crucial for understanding the hierarchical nature of feudal society, both in secular and religious contexts⁠

Corporations

Groups within the grand scheme of 3 levels, reflecting distinctions of where you live and who you are. Could also be voluntary.

ex. Important for understanding medieval social and economic organization.

Estates

In feudal times, one of three social classes with specific political powers.

Importance: Crucial for understanding political representation in late medieval and early modern Europe. If sovereigns wanted to raise taxes, they needed the approval of estates.

Capitalism

A social order in which production and trade are oriented toward seeking profit. Not prevalent in Latin Christendom due to limited money and trade routes

ex. Sugarcane cultivation, which spread from the Mediterranean to Portuguese territories and later to the Americas, was incredibly capitalistic⁠​

While not prevalent in medieval Latin Christendom, understanding its absence helps contextualize later economic developments. Early forms of capitalism emerged in Italian city-states like Venice and Florence in the 14th century.

Syncretism

The combination of different beliefs and ideas.

Importance: Important for understanding religious and cultural developments. For example, the syncretic blend of Christian and pagan beliefs was common in latin christendom.

Reconquista

the process of ending polysocial kingdoms in Iberia, such as the conquest of Granada in 1492.

Importance: Crucial for understanding the formation of modern Spain. This process culminated in 1492 with the fall of Granada, marking the end of Muslim rule in Iberia.

The Indies

In Latin Christendom, "Indes" referred to what we now call Asia, particularly its islands.

Importance: This term was crucial in the Age of Exploration, beginning in the late 15th century. For example, when Christopher Columbus sailed westward in 1492, he expected to reach Japan, part of what Europeans called the "Indies"⁠⁠.

National Allegiance

Refers to a person's loyalty to a specific state.

Importance: This concept emerged as nation-states began to form. Christopher Columbus, for instance, had no personal loyalty to Castile when he embarked on his voyages in 1492, highlighting the fluid nature of allegiance at the time⁠⁠​

Crown

A type of bureaucracy where the leader has a personal relationship with people who run the country

Importance: This type of bureaucracy became particularly prominent in the 16th and 17th centuries as monarchs centralized power. For example, in 1492, the rulers of Castile, representing the Crown, changed their minds and decided to fund Columbus's journey⁠

Factories (1st definition)

Outposts of trade

Importance: These were essential in the expansion of European commercial empires from the 15th century onwards. This marked the beginning of their commercial dominance.

Encomienda

A tract of land where the owner had the right to the labor of all the indigenous people who worked on the land

Importance: This system was implemented in Spanish America starting in 1503. It played a crucial role in the exploitation of indigenous populations and the establishment of Spanish colonial rule⁠

Encomendero

The man who owns the encomienda land

Importance: These landowners were key figures in Spanish colonial society from the early 16th century. Their power and influence shaped the social and economic structures of Spanish America for centuries⁠

The Great Dying

Refers to the rapid depopulation of indigenous peoples due to harsh conditions, forced labor, and disease

Importance: This catastrophic depopulation of indigenous peoples began with Columbus's arrival in 1492 and continued throughout the 16th century. For example, the rapid depopulation led many indigenous people to flee to the South American mainland⁠

Bio-Social Phenomenon

Describes how diseases exacerbated by famine and harsh conditions.

Importance: This concept is crucial for understanding the spread of diseases like smallpox in the Americas post-1492. For instance, smallpox was carried across the Atlantic in the 1490s but became particularly deadly when combined with famine and harsh working conditions

Colonial Space

a context where established social norms and hierarchies are disregarded, leading individuals to engage in behaviors they might not typically exhibit. This concept is useful for understanding how and why certain forms of violence emerge, and who perpetuates them, in specific historical and social contexts.

Importance: This concept emerged from the study of European colonization, particularly in the Americas from the late 15th century onwards. ⁠​

The plantation

A site of production that emerged in the 1400s and became prevalent in the Americas from the mid-1600s to mid-1800s. Characterized by racialized labor, commodities production, and intense resistance

Importance: Plantations were crucial in shaping the economic, social, and racial structures of the Americas.

Example: In 1530s, Portuguese established sugarcane plantations in Brazil, using dense concentrations of unfree labor, including Indigenous peoples and later, African slaves.

Commodity

A good or service that is traded for gain (profit)

Importance: Understanding commodities is key to grasping the economic motivations behind colonization and slave trade.

Example: By the mid-17th century, sugar had become a major commodity, with importation of enslaved Africans to Brazil increasing from 2,000 per year in the 1580s-1630s to 20,000 per year by the 1640s-1670s.

Monocrop agriculture

Cultivation of a single crop, often non-subsistence crops that play little role in sustaining humans.

Importance: This practice transformed landscapes and economies, often at the expense of local ecosystems and food security.

Example: In Antigua, large-scale sugarcane plantations were introduced in 1674, leading to significant soil degradation and peaking in the sugar industry by the 1700s.

Resistance

Frequent and intense opposition on plantations, taking various form

Importance: Resistance demonstrates the agency of enslaved people and challenges the narrative of passive victimhood.

Example: In Brazil, quilombos emerged as free communities of runaway slaves, blending agricultural practices with traditional African social structures.

Racialized

Positions assigned based on racial categories or racial identification, which are not naturally existing but socially constructed groupings.

Importance: The concept of racialization is crucial for understanding the development of modern racial ideologies and their economic roots.

Example: By the late 17th century, positions on plantations became increasingly racialized, with racial laws emerging in the 1660s-70s to segregate free and enslaved people and justify increased African importation.

Sugar cane (plants of the genus Saccharum)

Originally from South Asia, cultivated in small quantities in the Mediterranean from the 8th century. A labor-intensive crop that spread to Portuguese territories and later to the Americas

Importance: Sugar cane cultivation was a primary driver of the plantation economy and slave trade.

Example: Sugar cane was introduced to southern Portugal in the early 1400s, spreading to Madeira and São Tomé by the late 1400s, before being established in Brazil in the 1530s.

Waterside trade

Portuguese strategy of anchoring ships off African coast. Facilitated trade, enabled quick responses to opportunities, and established presence without permanent settlements. Key to early Portuguese commercial expansion in West Africa.

Importance: This strategy was key to early Portuguese commercial expansion in West Africa, setting the stage for later colonial endeavors.

Example: In the late 15th century, Portuguese traders used this method in Senegambia, adapting to local economic systems and establishing commercial relationships.

Temporary marriages

Portuguese temporary marriages with local women. These unions helped facilitate trade between the African Coast and Portugal.

Importance: These unions represent the complex cultural and economic interactions between Europeans and Africans during early colonial contact.

Example: In Senegambia, from the late 15th to early 16th centuries, Portuguese traders established relationships with African women, gaining commercial privileges in return.

Late 1400s & early 1500s "expansion"

This term refers to a period of state expansion, including Islamic, Aztec, and Inca expansions. The use of "European expansion" is considered misleading as it implies a unified agenda among explorers, while many were actually engaged in violent conflicts with each other

Importance: This term provides a more accurate understanding of global dynamics during this period, avoiding Eurocentric interpretations.

Example: While the Spanish and Portuguese were expanding their influence in the Americas after 1492, the Aztec Empire was also expanding, reaching its peak under Moctezuma I (1440-1469).

Anachronism

This refers to attributing a human phenomenon to a period in which it doesn't exist, or something that occurs later in time as being present earlier. For example, using the term "European" to describe social identities in the late 1400s and early 1500s is considered anachronistic, as this concept wasn't established until the 1700s

Importance: Understanding anachronism helps avoid misinterpretation of historical events and identities.

Example: The term "European" to describe social identities in 1492 is anachronistic, as this concept wasn't established until the 1700s. People in 1492 identified more with their local regions or religious affiliations.

The Reformations

This refers to a period starting around 1510 that highlighted the lack of unity in Latin Christendom. It involved a split over religious reform and authority, leading to the division between Catholicism and Protestantism. This had significant social and political consequences.

Importance: This period reshaped the religious and political landscape of Europe, influencing social structures for centuries.

Example: The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517, led to the fragmentation of Western Christianity and the emergence of Protestant states.

Salvation

This term relates to how people could best achieve salvation (reaching heaven after death). It was a central issue in the theological disputes of the time.

Importance: Understanding the concept of salvation is crucial for comprehending the religious conflicts and social changes of the period.

Example: The Catholic practice of selling indulgences for salvation was a key point of contention, criticized by Luther in 1517 and leading to major theological disputes.

The Low Countries

this term typically refers to a coastal region in Western Europe, including the modern-day Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg.

Importance: This region played a crucial role in early modern European trade and the development of capitalism.

Example: By 1492, the Low Countries, particularly cities like Antwerp, were significant trading hubs, especially in cloth production.

Dutch Revolt (1568-1609)

This was a widespread revolt in the Low Countries against the rule of the Habsburg monarchy

Importance: This revolt reshaped the political map of Europe and led to the emergence of the Dutch Republic as a major economic power.

Example: The revolt began in 1568 and resulted in the de facto independence of the Dutch Republic by 1581, officially recognized in 1648.

Peasants

a poor farmer of low social status who owns or rents a small piece of land for cultivation

Importance: Understanding the role of peasants is crucial for comprehending social and economic structures of the time.

Example: During the German Peasants' War (1524-1525), peasants rebelled against feudal oppression, influenced by the ideas of the Reformation.

Rural wage workers

a person in rural areas who exchanges their labor for wages.

Importance: The emergence of rural wage workers signifies a shift towards capitalist economic structures.

Example: In the Dutch Republic, by the early 1600s, many farmers transitioned from subsistence farming to wage labor, contributing to the region's economic prosperity.

Malacca/Melaka

An important trading port in the Malay Peninsula that played a crucial role in the spice trade. Chinese traders brought spices from Maluku to Malacca, where Muslim traders then distributed them further

Importance: Malacca was a crucial hub in the spice trade network, facilitating the exchange between Chinese and Muslim traders.

Example: By the early 1500s, Malacca had become so important that the Portuguese conquered it in 1511 to control the spice trade routes.

Moluccas/Maluku Islands

Also known as the Spice Islands, these were the source of valuable spices like cloves. The Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) established factories here and gained exclusive rights to the spice trade

Importance: Malacca was a crucial hub in the spice trade network, facilitating the exchange between Chinese and Muslim traders.

Example: By the early 1500s, Malacca had become so important that the Portuguese conquered it in 1511 to control the spice trade routes.

Strategic conversion

This refers to the practice of adopting certain beliefs or customs for political or economic advantage rather than out of genuine conviction

importance: During the first 100 years of Portuguese and Iberian activity in East Asia, local populations converted to Christianity when there was a political or economic advantage to doing so.

Daimyo

Feudal lords

Importance: The daimyo were crucial in shaping Japan's political and economic landscape during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Gekokujo

principle of lower controlling the upper. The opposite of ascribed status.

Importance: This principle challenged traditional hierarchies in Japanese society, influencing social mobility and power dynamics.

Example: During the Muromachi period (1336-1573), the gekokujo principle allowed lower-ranking samurai to overthrow their superiors, leading to significant political upheaval.

Visiting marriages

visit one another but stay aligned with birth families.

Importance: This practice reflects the unique social structures in pre-modern Japan, particularly regarding gender roles and family dynamics.

Alternate years at court

each domain lord was required to spend alternating years in their own domain capitals or attending the shogun's court in Edo.

Importance: This system, known as sankin-kōtai, was a key mechanism for the Tokugawa shogunate to control the daimyo. By 1534-1560, Japan began unifying under the Tokugawa shogunate, which controlled the daimyo through hostages and required them to alternate years in court.

Dutch East Indies Company (V.O.C.)

Established in 1602 to promote Dutch commercial ventures in the Indian Ocean, competing with the Portuguese. The VOC established factories in the Moluccas and used brutal tactics to secure a monopoly on the spice trade.

Importance: The VOC played a pivotal role in shaping global trade networks and European colonial expansion in Asia.

Unlike the Portuguese monarchs who were interested in power and prestige, the Dutch, through the VOC, were primarily focused on monetary gains⁠2

Cloves

A valuable spice that was part of the lucrative spice trade. The Dutch engaged in large-scale destruction of clove trees to maintain their monopoly

Importance: Cloves were one of the most valuable spices, driving much of the European exploration and colonization efforts in Southeast Asia.