Key Concepts in Environmental Science and Statistics

Learning outcome of Chapter 1

Define environment, ecosystems, and environmental sciences.

Learning outcome of Chapter 1

Give examples of the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science.

Learning outcome of Chapter 1

Define sustainability and sustainable development.

Methane (CH4)

An example of a hydrocarbon.

Primary function of enzymes

Speed up biochemical reactions.

Permanent change in the shape of a protein

Called denaturation.

DNA structure

Double-helix structure with bases on the inside.

Smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms

Cell.

Group of individuals of the same species living within a specific area

Population.

Association of populations of two or more different species living within a specific area

Community.

Broad category of ecosystems NOT based on their general environment

Atmospheric.

Ocean ecosystems comprise approximately what percentage of the Earth's surface

75 percent.

Food webs illustrate

How energy flows directionally through ecosystems.

The word 'environment' encompasses

Living and nonliving surroundings relevant to organisms.

Environmental science

Interdisciplinary study of all aspects of the environment.

Science, derived from the Latin 'scientia'

Means knowledge.

A suggested explanation for an event that can be tested

Hypothesis.

A tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena

Theory.

In the scientific method, a prediction typically has the format

'If... then...'.

A valid hypothesis must be

Testable and falsifiable.

Variable that is manipulated throughout the course of an experiment

Independent variable.

Group in an experiment that has no experimental change made to it

Control group.

The IPAT equation is used to

Define the ways various factors contribute to environmental degradation.

Precautionary principle suggests that

Lack of full scientific certainty should not postpone action to prevent environmental harm.

Utilitarian justification for environmental conservation emphasizes

The direct economic benefits to people.

exponential growth

The accelerating pattern of increasing population size.

density-independent factors

Factors that limit population growth regardless of population density.

density-dependent factor

Predation is an example of this type of factor.

life table

A graph showing the proportion of individuals of a particular age that are now alive in a population.

Type I survivorship curve

Humans and most large mammals have this type of curve, with most death occurring in older years.

Type II survivorship curve

Birds typically exhibit this type of curve.

Type III survivorship curve

This type of curve is often associated with trees.

human intelligence, society, and communication

The ability of humans to alter their environment with the conscious purpose of increasing carrying capacity is largely attributed to this.

fertility

A demographic statistic that describes the actual production of offspring.

crude birth rate

The number of births in a year per thousand people.

total fertility rate (TFR)

The number of children born to each woman in a population over her lifespan.

pronatalist pressures

Factors that increase people's desire to have children.

zero population growth

A country experiencing this is most likely in stage 4 of the demographic transition.

1950 - present

The time period with the most rapid human population growth rate.

Stage II of the demographic transition

Poor countries in Africa are often cited as examples of countries in this stage.

2.1 children per woman

The global replacement fertility rate is currently estimated to be approximately this.

coal

An example of a non-renewable energy source.

they form over millions of years, making their replenishment very slow

Fossil fuels are considered non-renewable because of this reason.

ancient plants and animals that decomposed slowly under anaerobic conditions

Coal, petroleum oil, and natural gas formed from this.

energy use

Historically, human prosperity has been directly correlated with this.

strip mining and underground mining

The primary methods of coal mining.

Coal-fired power plant

In a coal-fired power plant, coal is burned to heat water and produce steam.

Emissions from burning petroleum oil

Burning petroleum oil products releases emissions such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.

Hydraulic fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is a process used to extract natural gas and oil.

Concern with fossil fuels

A major concern associated with the use of fossil fuels is the release of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power plant fuel

The fuel used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity is typically uranium-235.

U-235 concentration in nuclear fuel processing

In the nuclear fuel processing, the concentration of U-235 is increased to about 4-5%.

Fuel rods in a nuclear reactor

Fuel rods in a nuclear reactor are bundled together to form a fuel assembly.

Benefit of nuclear energy

A benefit of nuclear energy is that it does not emit air pollutants like burning fossil fuels.

Drawback of nuclear energy

A major drawback of nuclear energy is the production of radioactive waste that must be safely stored for thousands of years.

Renewable energy sources

Energy sources that are more or less continuously made available within a timeframe useful to people are called renewable energy sources.

Conventional energy sources

Fossil fuels and nuclear power are generally considered conventional energy sources.

Indirect forms of solar energy

Wind energy, biomass energy, and some forms of water-based energy are indirect forms of solar energy.

Passive solar energy

Passive solar energy involves designing buildings to capture and distribute sunlight for heating and lighting.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells

Photovoltaic (PV) cells work by producing free electrons when sunlight hits the material, creating an electric current.

Disadvantage of solar energy

A disadvantage of solar energy is that it is intermittent and depends on sunlight availability.

Wind power generation

Wind power is generated by using the kinetic energy of moving air to turn turbines.

Environmental impact of wind power

A potential environmental impact of wind power is bird and bat mortality.

Hydroelectric power generation

Hydroelectric power generates electricity by using the energy of flowing or falling water to turn turbines.

Disadvantage of storage hydropower

A disadvantage of storage hydropower is that it can alter river flow and impact ecosystems.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy utilizes heat from within the Earth.

Carbon neutrality in biomass energy

The idea that the carbon dioxide released during combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed during plant growth.

Challenge of using corn-based ethanol as a biofuel

Ethical questions related to using edible portions of crops for fuel.

Hydrogen fuel production

A process called electrolysis.

Benefit of a hydrogen fuel-based energy system

Reduced dependence on foreign fuels and the potential to fight climate change.

Layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earth's surface

Troposphere.

Ozone layer location

Stratosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Known for depleting the ozone layer.

Air pollution from many diffuse sources

Non-point source pollution.

Examples of mobile sources of air pollution

Vehicles, aircrafts, ships, and trains.

Pollutants emitted directly from a source

Primary pollutants.

EPA regulated pollutants

Criteria pollutants.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

A colorless, odorless gas resulting from the incomplete combustion of fuel.

Particulate matter (PM) air pollution

Consists of both solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Carbon-containing chemicals emitted as gases from both natural and human-made sources.

Air toxics

Pollutants known to cause or have suspected links to serious health problems.

Acid rain causes

Primarily caused by the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Clean Air Act

U.S. legislation that aims to protect and improve the nation's air quality.

State Implementation Plans (SIPs)

Outline how each state will control air pollution under the Clean Air Act.

Locations where carbon resides on Earth

Known as pools or reservoirs.

Processes that move carbon from one location to another

Called fluxes.

Fossil fuels

Formed from ancient plants and animals that decomposed slowly under anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions.

Chemical reaction for combustion

Identical to the chemical reaction for cellular respiration.

Human activities impacting the carbon cycle

Primarily increase the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Ice cores

Used to study past climate by analyzing the measured ratio of stable isotopes of oxygen in the water molecules and atmospheric gas composition.

Greenhouse gases

Trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere by absorbing and scattering energy emitted by the Earth.

Major greenhouse gas NOT included

Oxygen (O2).

Global warming potential (GWP)

Measured relative to carbon dioxide.

Increases in near-surface ozone

Act as a climate warmer.

Scientific models for climate change

Must undergo rigorous scientific peer-review.

Global warming

Refers specifically to the increase in the average surface temperature of the Earth.

Consequences of climate change

Include changes in temperature, precipitation, ocean level, and ocean acidity.

Ocean acidification

A consequence of climate change caused by the absorption of excess carbon dioxide into the oceans.

Climate change adaptation strategies

Involve changing behaviors and policies in response to the changing environment.

Proper management of soil and forest ecosystems

Can act as carbon sinks for atmospheric carbon.