ap psych unit 9 free response terms

stereotypes

an **overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people**

prejudice

a **preconceived judgment** toward a certain person based on their group

discrimination

the **unjust treatment** toward a person **based on the group** they belong to

reference groups

groups we **compare** ourselves to when **evaluating** behavior

relative deprivation

perception by a person that the **amount of a desired resource** they have is **less in comparison to the reference group**

downward social comparison

when people **compare** themselves to **those less proficient to make themselves feel better**

spotlight effect

**overestimating** others’ noticing and evaluation of **our appearance and performance**

false consensus effect

overestimating how much other people **share our beliefs and behaviors**

self-perception theory

people develop their attitudes by observing their own **behavior** and then concluding what **attitudes** must’ve caused it

ingroup bias

the tendency for humans to be **more helpful and positive** towards members of their own group rather than an outgroup

outgroup bias

**negative categorizations, feelings, and ideas** about people who aren’t part of a person’s ingroup

outgroup homogeneity effect

the tendency to view an outgroup as **homogeneous (same),** whilst their ingroup is **heterogeneous (varied)**

self-fulfilling prophecy

own beliefs lead you to **act in ways that fulfil our expectations**

cognitive dissonance

**mental discomfort** a person experiences who holds 2 or more **contradictory beliefs,** ideas, or values

fundamental attribution error

bias in which one only focuses on others and believes their **negative behavior is due to internal attributions,** whereas their **positive behavior is due to external attributions.**

self-serving bias

bias in which one only focuses on themself and believes their **negative behaviors are due to external attributions,** whereas their **positive behavior is due to internal attributions**

actor-observer bias

bias in which one believes their **own negative behaviors are** due to **external** attributions while **others’ are internal** attributions. in addition, they believe **their own positive behaviors are** due to **internal** attributions while **others’ are external** attributions

norm of reciprocity

the rule that we should **pay back what we receive** from others

foot in the door technique

getting a person to **agree to a large request** by first having them **agree to a smaller one**

door in the face technique

getting a person to **agree to a second, more reasonable request** after asking a **large one** that they’ll most likely turn down.

social loafing

exerting **less effort** when working on a task in groups than individually

social facilitation

the presence of others improves one’s performance

social impairment

the presence of others hinders one’s performance

group polarization

the tendency for groups to make **more extreme decisions** than the **initial inclination** of each individual member

group think

when a group prioritizes **harmony and conformity** over **critical thinking and decision making**

bystander effect

people are **less likely to provide needed** help in groups than individually

diffusion of responsibility

when others are present, one is **less likely to take responsibility**

deindividuation

the loss of **self-awareness** and **personal identity** when in groups due to **perceived lack of accountability**

social norms

the perceived informal, unwritten rules that define **acceptable and appropriate actions**

normative influence

when people conform to social norms **for fear of negative social consequence**

informational influence

when people conform in unclear situations **because they’re unsure what to do**

mere-exposure effect

**repeated** exposures to a stimulus **promotes greater liking of it.**

behavioral approach

the influence of behavior through **observation, rewards + punishments**, and making associations

cognitive approach

the influence of behavior through **problem solving, mental processes, and decision making**

sociocultural approach

the influence of behavior through societal and cultural factors: family, peers, gender, religion, and ethnicity

psychodynamic approach

the influence of behavior through **unconscious urges** + impulses and **repressed memories of childhood trauma**

humanistic approach

the influence of behavior through the belief that humans are **inherently good** and we want to **reach our potential;** we have self concept and free will

constructive memory

using **existing knowledge, schemas, and experiences** to fill in gaps of information during encoding + retrieval

context dependent memory

remember information **best in similar locations**

mood congruency

information is best recalled if a person’s emotional state is **similar to the emotional state/tone of processing**

representative heuristic

**mental shortcut** where someone makes a decision based on **how something fits their schema** or prototype of a concept

availability heuristic

**mental shortcut** based on how **readily relevant** instances come to mind due to recent experiences

framing

decision making can be affected by how choices are structured

prototype

the best example of a category (icon of schema)

reliability

**consistency** of scores

validity

how well a tool (test) assesses what it’s accurately aimed to measure

stereotype threat

when worry about **conforming** to a negative stereotype leads to the **underperformance on a task** by a member of the stereotyped group

openness

receptive to new ideas, creative, and broad in interests

conscientiousness

**responsible, organized,** and **disciplined**

extraversion

**outgoing, assertive,** and **talkative**

agreeableness

**trusting, helpful,** and easy-going

neuroticism

**emotionally unstable, anxious,** and **moody**