APGOPO Units 1-2

Politics

the process of making decisions in groups, and understanding the power dynamics involved in the political system

Government

the system by which a country or community is administered and regulated

Democracy

government by the people, either directly or indirectly, with free and frequent elections

Natural Rights

the idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and PROPERTY. consent of the governed.

Social Contract

the concept that individuals voluntarily surrender some freedoms to a government in exchange for the protection of their rights and the maintenance of social order

Popular Sovereignty

the principle that the government's power ultimately comes from the people, or the consent of the governed

Republicanism

Republicanism is a political ideology centered around the belief that government should be based on the consent of the governed and that representatives should be elected to serve the interests of the people

Inalienable Rights

rights that are fundamental and cannot be taken away or given away

Liberty

the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views

Participatory Democracy

emphasizes broad citizen involvement in political processes, including policy decisions

Pluralist Theory

suggests that power in a democracy is not concentrated in the hands of a few elites, but rather is distributed among numerous groups and individuals who compete for influence

Elitist Theory

argues that a small, influential group, often wealthy, controls government and policy decisions, shaping the political process to benefit their interests

Political Institutions

Organizations or structures within a political system that have specific roles and functions in making decisions, implementing policies, maintaining order, or resolving conflicts.

Constitutional Republic

a form of government where citizens elect representatives to govern according to a written constitution

Constitution

the supreme law of the United States, outlining the structure and powers of the federal government and guaranteeing fundamental rights to citizens

Republic

a form of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions and govern on their behalf, rather than participating directly in decision-making

Articles of Confederation

the United States' first constitution, adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781

Unicameral

a legislative body with only one chamber or house

Shay’s Rebellion

a 1786-1787 armed uprising by Massachusetts farmers, led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays, protesting against economic hardship and high taxes

Constitutional Convention

a formal meeting held to create or revise a country's constitution

Writ of Habeas Corpus

a court order directed at an individual or agency holding someone in custody, requiring them to bring the imprisoned person before the court to determine the legality of their detention

Bills of Attainder

a legislative act that punishes a specific person or group without a trial

Ex Post Facto Laws

a law that retroactively changes the legal consequences of an act that was committed before the law's enactment. Specifically, it can criminalize actions that were legal when performed, increase criminal punishment for existing offenses, or alter the rules of evidence in a way that makes conviction more likely.

Virginia Plan

a proposal for a new US government presented at the Constitutional Convention. It favored a strong central government with three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) and a two-house legislature where representation in each house would be based on state population.

New Jersey Plan

a proposal presented during the 1787 Constitutional Convention that advocated for a unicameral (one-house) legislature where each state would have equal representation, regardless of its population

Grand Committee

the constitutional convention; representatives from each of the former colonies, except Rhode Island, they helped frame the Constitution

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

established a bicameral legislature for the United States. It created the House of Representatives and the Senate, resolving the conflict between large and small states over representation. The House of Representatives would be based on population, while the Senate would have equal representation for each state, regardless of size

Bicameral

A legislative body with two houses or chambers.

Three-Fifths Compromise

determined how enslaved people would be counted for both representation in Congress and direct taxation.

Compromise on Importation

a key agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention that prohibited Congress from banning the importation of enslaved people for a period of 20 years, until 1808.

Separation of Powers

the division of governmental authority among three distinct branches

Checks and Balances

the separation of power to avoid one entity or body wielding too much power.

Federalism

a system where power is divided between a national government and state governments

Legislative Branch

the part of the government responsible for making laws, and it is composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate, together known as Congress

Expressed or Enumerated Powers

the specific powers granted to the federal government by the Constitution

Necessary and Proper or Elastic Clause

grants Congress the power to make laws deemed "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers

Implied Powers

those not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but are inferred to exist because they are necessary for carrying out enumerated powers

Concurrent Powers

those that are shared by both the federal government and the state governments

Executive Branch

consists of the President, his or her advisors and various departments and agencies. This branch is responsible for enforcing the laws of the land.

Judicial Branch

interprets laws, determines their constitutionality, and resolves disputes through the courts. It ensures that laws are applied fairly and that government actions align with the Constitution. This branch of government is a crucial part of the system of checks and balances, where each branch has powers that can limit the others.

Supremacy Clause

establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land. This means that federal law takes precedence over conflicting state laws.

Amendment

a formal, written change or addition to the US Constitution

Federalists

Group of people that support the constitution.

Anti-Federalists

Group of people against the constitution.

Federalist No. 51

Addresses checks and balances as well as separation of power within the national government.

Federalist No. 10

Strong central government can protect liberty because it guards against the dangers of control by narrow interests.

Faction

A group of people with similar political purposes.

Brutus No. 1

Strong central government could jeopardize individual liberties and state sovereignty.

Federalist 70

Hamilton argues for a strong executive leader, as he opposed to the weak executive under the Articles of Confederation

Federalist 78

The separation of the judiciary branch is important because alone it has little power but combined with either of the other two branches it could do a lot of damage to liberty.

Unitary System

Central government has all the power

Confederal System

State governments have all the power.

Federal System

State and central governments share the power.

Exclusive Powers

Powers that are only granted to the national government.

Reserved Powers

Powers that are not granted to the national government and are retained by the people and state governments.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by the state and national governments.

Commerce Clause

Clause that allows congress to regulate interstate and business and commercial activity.

Tenth Amendment

Rights reserved to the states and the people;reserved powers

Full Faith and Credit Clause

State courts must respect the laws and decisions of another state's court.

Extradition Clause

If someone commits a crime in one state and flees to another state the state they flee to must send them back.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Constitutional clause that prevents discrimination.

Dual Federalism

A separation but not clear boundaries between federal and state governments.

Cooperative Federalism

Both levels work together in the same area of public policy.

Grants - in - Aid

Money provided by the government to the states in order to carry out a policy the government sees as useful.

Fiscal Federalism

The federal government's use of grants in aid to influence policies in the states.

Categorical Grants

Federal funding provided to state and local governments, but with strict guidelines and specific purposes for how the money can be used

17th Amendment

established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote rather than being chosen by state legislatures.

Oversight

Congressional oversight refers to the power of Congress to monitor, review, and supervise federal agencies, programs, and policies to ensure they are implemented effectively and in accordance with the law.

Mandatory Spending

government expenditures that are legally obligated and not subject to annual appropriations.

Discretionary Spending

Discretionary spending refers to the portion of the federal budget that is decided by Congress through the annual appropriations process.

Budget Surplus

when a government's revenue (income) exceeds its expenditures (spending) over a specific period, typically a fiscal year

Budget Deficit

occurs when a government's spending exceeds its revenue during a specific period, typically a fiscal year

Constituency

a group of people who live within a specific geographical area and have the right to vote for a representative in the government

House Majority Leader

Elected every two years in secret balloting during the party caucus or conference, the majority leader is second to the Speaker of the House in party hierarchy. The majority leader is responsible for expediting legislative business and keeping the majority party united

Whip

mainly responsible for counting heads and rounding up party members for votes and quorum calls, and they occasionally stand in for the majority or minority leaders in their absence.

Minority Leader

the head of the minority party in the House of Representatives, responsible for organizing and unifying party members.

Senate Majority Leader

the head of the majority party in the U.S. Senate, responsible for setting the legislative agenda and ensuring party discipline.

Committee Chair

the member of congress responsible for running a committee, who can have great influence over the committee agenda and, by extension, the legislative process.

Standing Committee

permanent committees established under the standing rules of the Senate and specialize in the consideration of particular subject areas

Joint Committee

a congressional committee composed of members from both the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate

Conference Committee

exist to draft a compromise bill that both houses can accept

Select or Special Committee

resolves differences in legislation between House and Senate; usually includes committee chairs/ chamber leadership.

Rules Committee

responsible for the rules under which bills will be presented to the House of Representatives, unlike other committees, which often deal with a specific area of policy.

Filibuster

The practice of extending debate in the Senate, used to obstruct or delay legislation

Cloture

Cloture is a legislative procedure used in the U.S. Senate to end a filibuster or bring a debate to a close, allowing for a vote on the matter at hand.

Apportionment

Apportioning is the process of distributing or allocating seats in a legislative body among different political entities, usually based on population size.

Gerrymandering

Apportioning is the process of distributing or allocating seats in a legislative body among different political entities, usually based on population size.

Partisan Gerrymandering

the drawing of legislative district lines to subordinate adherents of one political party and entrench a rival party in power

Majority-minority districts

the majority of the constituents in the district are racial or ethnic minorities

Packing

the political strategy of concentrating as many voters of one type into a single electoral district to dilute their overall voting power

Cracking

electoral districts are deliberately drawn to dilute the voting power of a particular demographic group.

14th Amendment

primarily addresses citizenship and the rights of citizens, particularly in relation to state governments

Equal Protection Clause

prohibits states from denying any person within their jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws

Due Process Clause

prevents the government from denying individuals "life, liberty, or property" without following established legal procedures

Voting Rights Act of 1965

landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting.

Malapportionment

unequal representation of populations in legislative districts, where the distribution of voters across districts is uneven.

“One person, one vote”

a legal rule that one person's voting power ought to be roughly equivalent to another person's within the same state

Delegate Role

representatives are expected to vote in line with their constituents' opinions, even if it contradicts their personal beliefs

Trustee Role

influences elected officials by encouraging them to use their judgment and expertise to make decisions that they believe are in the best interest of their constituency.