AP Bio 3.1-3.5 (Chemical Groups-Denaturation)

Hydroxyl Group

Hydroxyl Group

A chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. -OH

Carbonyl Group

a chemical group consisting of a carbon atom linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom. >C=O

Carboxyl Group

A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group. -COOH

Amino Group

a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. -NH2

Sulfhydryl Group

A chemical group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. -SH

Phosphate Group

A chemical group consisting of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; important in energy transfer. --OPO32-

Methyl Group

A chemical group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms. -CH3

Hydroxyl Example

Ethanol, the alcohol present in alcoholic beverages

Carbonyl Example

Acetone (a ketone), Propanal (a aldehyde)

Carboxyl Example

acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste

Amino Example

Glycine

Sulfhydryl Example

Cysteine

Phosphate Example

ATP

Methyl Example

5-methyl cytosine (DNA)

Hydroxyl Chemical Formula

--OH (HO--)

Carbonyl Chemical Formula

C=O (O=C<)

Carboxyl Chemical Formula

--COOH (HOOC--)

Amino Chemical Formula

--NH2

Sulfhydryl Chemical Formula

--SH (HS--)

Phosphate Chemical Formula

--OPO3^2-

Methyl Chemical Formula

--CH3

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

Hydrophillic Chemical Function Groups-Increase solubility

Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate, Methyl.

Hydrophobic Chemical Function Groups-Decrease Solubility

Sulfhydryl

Non-Reactive Chemical Function Groups

Methyl

Reactive Chemical Function Groups

Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Sulfhydryl, Phosphate

Ionized Chemical Function Groups

Carboxyl, Amino

Nonionized Chemical Function Groups

Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Sulfhydryl, Phosphate, Methyl

Macromolecules

A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules

Macromolecule Example

protein molecule, DNA molecule

Organic Compound

a covalently bonded compound that contains carbon, excluding carbonates and oxides

Carbon Skeletons

provide the basic structures for organic molecules

Ways Carbon Skeletons can vary

length, branching, double bond position, presence of rings

Hydrocarbon

Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen

Hydrocarbon Example

Methane (CH4)

Polymer

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.

Polymer Example

starch

Monomer Example

glucose, amino acids, nucleotides

Monomer

small chemical unit that makes up a polymer

Enzyme

A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing

Enzyme Example

lactase breaks down lactose

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

Dehydration Synthesis Example

glucose + fructose = sucrose

Hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

Hydrolysis Example

sucrose + water --> glucose + fructose

Carbohydrates

Broken down to simple sugars

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules

Carbohydrate Example

glucose

Monosaccharides Example

glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of two monosaccharides

How long is a Carbon skeleton?

3-7 carbons long

Hexose

6 carbon sugar

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

Polysaccharides

large macromolecules formed from monosaccharides

What are polysaccharides used for?

energy storage and structural support

Glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

Cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms

Glucose Formation

hydroxyl group attached to the #1 carbon can be an alpha helix (above the ring) or a beta pleated sheet (below the ring)

Chitin

A structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.

Lipids

Hydrophobic macromolecule made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Lipid example

fat, oil, wax, phospholipid, steroids

Fats

lipids that are solid at room temperature, nonpolar, hydrophobic

Fat example

butter

Fatty Acid

hydrocarbon chain often bonded to glycerol in a lipid

Unsaturated fats

A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.

Saturated fats

A fat that is solid at room temperature and found in animal fats, lards, and dairy products.

Phospholipid

a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes

What are phospholipids made of?

a phosphate group and two fatty acids

Phospholipids have a _____ head and a _____ tail.

hydrophilic (polar), hydrophobic (nonpolar)

Steroids

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached

Steroid example

cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen

7 protein functions

Enzymatic, Defensive, Storage, Transport, Hormonal, Contractile, Receptor, Structural

Enzymatic Protein Function

selective acceleration of chemical reactions

Defensive Protein Function

protection against disease

Storage Protein Function

storage of amino acids

Transport Protein Function

transport of substances

Hormonal Protein Function

coordination of organisms activities

Contractile Protein Function

make muscles move

Receptor Protein Function

response of cell to chemical stimuli

Structural Protein Function

to support

Enzymatic Protein Function Example

Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of bonds in food molecules

Defensive Protein Function Example

Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria.

Storage Protein Function Example

Casein, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids for baby mammals. Plants have storage proteins in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source for the developing embryo.

Transport Protein Function Example

transport of substances (hemoglobin) takes O2 from lungs to body

Hormonal Protein Function Example

Insulin

Contractile Protein Function Example

Control the Cilia/Flagella, Actin+Myosin contract molecules

Receptor Protein Function Example

Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by other nerve cells.

Structural Protein Function Example

Keratin, Collagen, Elastin

Polypeptide

A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Amino Acid

compound with an amino group on one end and a carboxyl group on the other end

Polypeptide Example

insulin

Amino Acid Example

Glycine

Peptide Bond

covalent bond formed between amino acids, formed by dehydration synthesis

Primary Protein Structure

linear sequence of amino acids

Secondary Protein Structure

coiling or folding of a polypeptide due to H-bonding between amino acids

Tertiary Protein Structure

3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

Quaternary Protein Structure

association between two or more polypeptide chains within one protein

Sickle Cell Disease

Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape.

Denaturation

A process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure and hence function; can be caused by changes in pH or salt concentration or by high temperature. Also refers to the separation of the two strands of the DNA double helix, caused by similar factors.

Denaturation Example

Cooking an egg