General Psychology Exam 3

Personality

the unique collection of attitudes, emotions, thoughts, habits, impulses, and behaviors that define how a person typically behaves across situations.

Psychoanalytic Approach

Freud’s theory —> strongly emphasizes the unconscious aspects of personality

Conscious

“Tip of Iceberg”

The part we see when looking at someone’s behavior

The thoughts, perceptions, and explanations of behavior that people are actively aware of

Preconscious

“Middle of Iceberg”

Holding place for easily accessible memories, thoughts, or impulses which we could become consciously aware of, if needed

Unconscious

All the inaccessible thoughts, impulses, memories, and behaviors of which you are unaware

Freud believed that even though you are unaware of them they still influence your behavior

Id

The unconscious force that seeks pleasure and gratification

Operates according to the pleasure principle→ maximize pleasure and avoid pain

Ego

Acts as the negotiator between the instinctual needs of the Id and the demands of membership in a human society

Operated according to the reality principle

Super Ego

Moral conscious

Demands of the superego must be met realistically by the ego in order to function in society

Freudian slip

expression of unconscious impulse from the Id before the Ego has a chance to control the impulse

Neo-Fruedians

Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney

Agree that unconscious conflicts were important to understanding personality but placed less emphasis on the role of instinctual impulses of sex and aggression in motivating behavior

Carl Jung

Unconscious is divided into:

Personal unconscious→ forgotten memories and repressed experiences

Collective unconscious → universal to all time periods and cultures

Emphasis on the collective unconscious and his belief that spiritual and religious drives are just as important

Archetypes

mental representations or symbols of themes and predispositions to respond to the world in a certain way

Anima and Animus

feminine archetype within a man

masculine archetype within a woman

Alfred Adler

The child desires to overcome feelings of helplessness to gain autonomy and master the environment that directs their behavior

Personality develops from our attempts to compensate for those inferiority feelings

Emphasized the importance of birth order

Karen Horney

Suggested that family environments and disturbances in early childhood led to basic anxiety(feelings of helplessness)

CONTRAST TO FREUD→ said that culture plays a larger role in personality development than biology or instinct

Contributions of the psychoanalytic approach

The theory on dreams stimulated much research on the nature of sleep

His focus on coping sparked study and interest in Health Psychology

His ideas are evident in tests designed to measure personality and in therapy approaches used to help people with mental health disorders

Criticisms of the psychoanalytic approach

Too much emphasis on sexual and aggressive instincts

Shines very little light on environmental and social conditions that may affect personality

Focus on male development and perpetuation of male superiority

Trait Approach

Describes personality and emphasizes its biological aspects

Assumes that we have internal tendencies to behave in a certain way across most types of situations

Traits remain relatively stable as we age

Allport’s Trait Theory

Central traits

• Tendencies we have across most situations

• Core qualities your friends would state when asked to describe you

Secondary traits

• How we behave in certain situations

• More situation-specific tendencies

Cardinal traits

• These were meant to describe how we behave in all situations but in reality, he had a difficult time finding any true cardinal traits

Raymond Cattel’s Factor Analytic Theory

Possible traits that could be used to describe people are entered into a computer program then the program uses statistical probabilities to group related traits into categories called factors

• Yielded 36 surface traits

Hans Eysenck’s PEN Model

Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism

Psychoticism

Tendencies toward recklessness, disregard for common sense and cultural norms, consideration, hostility, anger, impulsivity

Introversion/Extraversion

Where one’s energy is directed

Introversion→ energy inward. could include traits such as being rigid, reliable, sober, or controlled

Extroversion→ energy outward. Tendency could look like being easygoing, lively, or excitable

Emotional Stability/Neuroticism

Control over one’s emotions

Emotional Stability: Even-tempered and calm are traits that include more control over emotions

Neuroticism: Moody and touchy

The Five Factor Trait Theory (OCEAN)

psychological theory that describes personality in five broad domains:

Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Openness to experience

degree to which one is thoughtful and rational in considering new ideas and experiences

High→ imaginative, creative, curious, prefers variety and novelty

Low→ prefer routine and familiarity, less likely to consider new ideas or try new things

Conscientiousness

degree to which one is aware of and attentive to people, details of a task, or both

High→ hardworking, reliable, ambitious, self-controlled

Low→ unreliable, lazy, spontanious

Extraversion

degree to which energy is directed inward or outward

High→ talkative, sociable, prefer to be around people

Low→ quiet, reserved, and more comfortable on their own

Agreeableness

degree to which one gets along well with others and acts unselfish

High→ easy going, altruistic, trusting

Low→ unfriendly, antagonistic, suspicious

Neuroticism

degree to which someone is emotionally stable or unstable

High→ temperamental, worrisome, pessimistic

Low→ more even-tempered and calmer

Reward Process Theory

Extraverts’ brains are more sensitive to both reward and dopamine functioning which leads to them to gravitate to more stimulating social activities

Social Cognitive Approach

influenced by social environment and internal thoughts

Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura speculates that personality is the product of the interaction between our environment, behavior, and thoughts

• We choose to place ourselves in certain environments and those environments influence our behavior and the ways we think

Self-efficacy

one’s expectations of success/ability/competence in a given situation

High → believe they will be successful and approaching a situation with this belief is more likely to result in actual success

Low → approach a task believing they won’t succeed and this decreases the chance of succeeding

Rotter’s Locus of Control

an individual's perception of how much control they have over the events in their life

Internal: people either believe they can control their destiny

External: external forces, like luck or fate, are the primary drivers

Contributions of the Social Cog. Approach

Stimulated research examining how cognition influences our behavior

Knowledge of memory, attributions, and problem-solving stem directly from this perspective which lends itself to research specifically experimental testing

Criticisms of the Social Cog. Approach

Doesn’t address biological, unconscious, and emotional factors that influence personality

Doesn’t specify the exact nature of personality development

Humanistic Approach

Individual, personal choice, and free will shape personality

Individual is an active participant in their growth

Assume people have a built-in drive toward fulfilling natural potential

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Pathway to achieving self-actualization is a hierarchy with physical or biological survival needs at the bottom, psychological/social needs at the top

You have to satisfy the lower-level needs before you can attain the higher-level needs

Carl Rogers Self Theory

Understanding of how people view themselves and how they interpret events around them

Humans naturally strive for fulfillment and enhancement

Actualization-tendency

set at birth, moves the infant to recognize that they are separate from their parents

Self-Concept

perception or image of our abilities and our uniqueness

• Simple and concrete at first

• Becomes more comprehensive and differentiated as we learn more about ourselves

Organismic valuing process

Experiences that maintain or enhance the person are values and therefore preferred (opposite is also true)

Infants know what they like and dislike→ Simple and direct

unconditional positive regard

The acceptance and love with no strings attached that we receive from others

contributions of the Humanistic approach

Ideas incorporated into individual, family, and group therapy approaches

Encourages people to be aware of themselves and their interactions with others

criticisms of the Humanistic approach

Naive and optimistic assumption that all people are good and motivated toward self-actualization

Difficult to validate many of the concepts

What is reliability?

consistency of a measurement tool

Need to yield similar results over time

It won’t be perfect b/c humans are messy but they should report similar trends

What is validity?

ability of a test to measure what it says it is measuring

Must measure what we believe personality to be

4 main ways of measuring personality

Personality Inventories

Projective tests

Rating scales

Clinical Interviews

Personality Inventories

Objective paper-pencil or computerized self-report forms

Usually indicate how well a statement describes you or answer true false statements

Key issues→ test-takers honesty or truthfulness

Projective tests

Shown ambiguous image and then asked to describe what you see or tell a story about the picture

Rely on the idea that whatever stories or explanations you offer reflect your issues projected onto the image

Rating scales

Formatted similarly to checklists

Teachers, parents, partners, and clinicians also complete a rating scale on the person being evaluated

Clinical Interviews

Involves clinician asking the client questions to identify the client's difficulty in functioning

Infant Perceptual Development - Vision

Very nearsighted at birth

Eyes lack convergence(the ability to focus both eyes on an object)

Infants have a harder time processing male faces than female

Depth perception —> Develops during first year

Acquire depth perception at the same time they become mobile

Pareidolia

Tendency to see faces in random patterns that only strongly resemble the configuration of a face

Eleanor Gibson’s (1960) “Visual Cliff” study

Created an apparatus called a visual cliff

Observed at what age infants would or would not cross the surface that appeared to drop off

Infants as young as 6 months hesitated

Infant Perceptual Development - Hearing

20th week→ fetuses react to sounds in the intrauterine environment

Mothers voice

Infants can locate direction of sounds

Prefer soft and rhythmic sounds

Infant Perceptual Development - Taste, Touch, and Smell

Taste buds are functioning after birth, and they prefer sweet tastes

Born with acute sense of smell and can discriminate the scent of their mother from that of an unfamiliar female as soon as three days old

Very responsive to pleasant touch

Schemas (central)

Any mental idea, concept, or thought

Form them based on experiences with the world

Mental equilibrium/disequilibrium

Mental equilibrium: When we achieve this fit (our cognitions correspond with the environment)

Mental disequilibrium: When there is not a fit between schemas and the world we experience

Assimilation (central)

process of applying an existing schema to our understanding of the environment

• Calling a cow a dog because the only schema a child has for a 4 legged animal is a dog

Accommodation (central)

Process used to change or modify our existing schema or even create new ones to adapt to some change in the environment

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years)

Infants acquire knowledge through their senses and motor abilities

Can only form schemas of objects and actions in their immediate perception

Lack ability to represent an object when it is not present

Object Permanence

Understanding that an object continues to exist even when it’s not present in front of you

Once they acquire this they are on their way to symbolic thinking→ understanding that the object can be represented with symbols

Pre-operational Stage (2-7 yrs)

Preschoolers and young children actively acquire and use symbols

Still illogical and doesn't always make sense to adults

Centration

When a child focuses on only one feature or aspect of an object

Conservation

Ability to realize that something can remain the same even if its appearance changes

Egocentrism

The belief that everyone thinks the same way as you

Inability to see others POVs

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Emphasized that mental processes begin externally with our social interactions with others.

Internal origin of schemas

Private Speech (“self talk”)

Children talk to themselves while they play

Represents an internal monitor that guides child's actions

Common among preschoolers and peaks around 5-7

How did Vygotsky see cognition and social interaction to be deeply intertwined?

Language, measurement systems, rituals, beliefs, and technology of a culture limit and support certain ways of thinking

Cognitive development does not occur in fixed stages

Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between what a child can already do and what they are not yet capable of doing without help/support

Three Levels of Moral Reasoning

Preconventional

Conventional

Postconventional

Preconventional

Children make decisions about right and wrong based on their ability to avoid punishment or gain a reward

Centered on the immediate consequences of their actions

Conventional

Can now understand rules and expectations that others may have for them

Moral reasoning based on standards of the group or society

Child can appreciate society’s rules and laws for moral behavior

Postconventional

People base judgements of right or wrong based on contractual or universal principles of morality

A person can appreciate circumstances and realize that external standards handed down from society cannot always be applied to all situations in the same manner

How did Gilligan propose that Males and Females approach moral reasoning differently?

Males tend to be more focused on fairness and justice

Females are more likely to emphasize concern, care, and relation with others in making right and wrong judgments

Temperament

Babies come into the world with a general disposition to behave in certain ways

These initial differences in behavior are believed to be due more to biological makeup than environment

Easy Infants

Generally in a good mood

A regular pattern of eating and sleeping

Readily approach new objects and people

Adapt readily to changes in their routines

Difficult Infants

More intense negative emotions

More irregular patterns of eating and sleeping

Not as likely to approach new people and situations

Slow-to-Warm-Up Infants

In between the extremes

Not as negative in emotional response as difficult infants

However, takes some time to adapt to new situations

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and primary caregiver

Firmly established by 8 to 9 months

Harry Harlow’s Monkey Study

Two artificial monkeys→ wire mother with bottle and cloth mother without bottle

Feeding NOT the primary reason infants are attached

Close warm contact actually facilitated the bond

Human infants can easily attach to multiple people and objects

Separation anxiety

Fear expressed when separated from primary caretaker

Appears at 6-7 months and peaks at 14-18 months

Stranger anxiety

Infant becomes distressed when approached by unfamiliar people

Typically appears between 8-10 months

The Strange Situation Lab Experiment

Infants and parents are placed in an unfamiliar playroom

Does the infant play freely and explore the new situation with parent present

Baby’s response when parent leaves the room

Baby’s reaction when parent returns

Four attachment styles

Secure

Avoidant

Resistant

Disorganized/Disoriented

Secure

Use parent as a supportive base from which to operate and explore their environment

Explore toys in the new situation and look to mom’s reaction when a new person enters (she's not worried, I'm not worried)

Avoidant

Ignore the parent

Don’t appear distressed when parent leaves

Very little response when parent reappears

Resistant

Resemble a clinging baby

Remain close to parents do not explore new situations

Extreme distress when parent leaves and angry upon return

Disorganized/Disoriented

Seem confused or disoriented

Look away from parent when being comforted and have blank facial expression after being calmed

Three Original Parenting Styles

Authoritarian

Authoritative

Permissive

Authoritarian

High expectations/ control, lower warmth

Set high expectations without communicating reasons

My way or the highway

Children with this type of parent tend to be more withdrawn, anxious and conforming than other children

Authoritative

high expectations, moderate control, high warmth

Least likely to use physical punishment

Clear rules and consequences

Reasonable expectations and demands and children respond accordingly (mutual respect)

Tend to have competent, happy, and self-confident children

Appears to be the most effective form of parenting

Permissive

low control/ expectations

Discipline is lax

Children make their own decisions even if not capable of doing so quite yet

Very few demands are made of children in terms of rules or chores

Permissive Indulgent

Parents are warm, affectionate, and involved but still make few demands

Children are impulsive, disobedient yet emotionally secure

Permissive Neglectful

Few demands of children and little warmth or affection

Often uninvolved and neglect emotional needs of children

Children tend to have poorer outcomes in social skills, self-esteem, and academic achievement

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Eight stages of psychosocial changes in adolescence & adulthood

Stage 1

Trust vs. Mistrust

First year of life when infants are totally dependent on others in their environment to meet their needs

When needs are met, they are more likely to develop trust in others

Stage 2

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Age 1-3, toddlers struggle with separating from their primary caregiver

Must negotiate an appropriate balance between autonomy or independence and dependence on others