IP - Midterm 2 Review

Offender Profiling

The process of inferring characteristics of an offender (personality, habits, demographics, motives, etc.) based on information from their crimes.

Crime Scene Assessment

Another term for Offender Profiling.

Crime Scene Analysis

Another term for Offender Profiling.

Criminal Behavior Analysis

Another term for Offender Profiling.

Psychological Profiling

Another term for Offender Profiling.

Goal of Offender Profiling

Use crime scene evidence and behavioral patterns to make predictions about offender characteristics (e.g., gender, age, occupation, familiarity with the area, personality).

Role of Offender Profiling in Investigations

Profiling can assist in evaluating evidence, help summarize a case, reduce the pool of suspects, link similar crimes using unique indicators or behavioral patterns, and help target resources/interventions effectively.

Historical Background of Offender Profiling

The idea of inferring personality from behavior dates back centuries, with early profilers like Dr. Thomas Bond and James A. Brussel.

Behavioral Consistency

Offenders behave similarly across their crimes, but their behavior is distinct enough from other offenders to tell them apart.

Homology

Offenders who display similar crime scene behaviors share similar personal characteristics, although support for this assumption is weak and inconsistent.

Criminal Investigative Approach

Originated from the 1970s FBI Behavioral Science Unit; founded modern profiling due to frustration with forensic evidence without a suspect.

Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU)

Created for behavioral and operational support, initially based on intuition, experience, and guesswork.

Strengths of Criminal Investigative Approach

First systematic and quantitative profiling approach, combining science and experience.

Criticisms of Criminal Investigative Approach

Seen as more of an art than a science, with a lack of psychological training and heavy reliance on intuition.

Clinical / Individualistic Approach

Relies on clinical judgment, experience, and intuition, focusing on individual cases rather than large datasets.

Strengths of Clinical / Individualistic Approach

Provides deep psychological insight into offender behavior and can educate investigators lacking psych training.

Criticisms of Clinical / Individualistic Approach

Idiosyncratic and lacks consistency and empirical grounding, with no standardized method for producing or evaluating a profile.

Statistical Approach

Founded by David Canter and Laurie Alison, based on the assumption that actions at the crime scene reflect the offender's background.

5 Factors Considered in Statistical Approach

1. Residential location 2. Criminal biography 3. Domestic/social characteristics 4. Personal characteristics 5. Occupational/educational history.

Statistical Profiling

Also known as Investigative Psychology Approach.

Residential location

One of the five factors considered in criminal profiling.

Criminal biography

One of the five factors considered in criminal profiling.

Domestic/social characteristics

One of the five factors considered in criminal profiling.

Personal characteristics

One of the five factors considered in criminal profiling.

Occupational/educational history

One of the five factors considered in criminal profiling.

Strengths of Statistical Profiling

Rooted in the scientific method, more theory-based than other approaches, offers a dimensional understanding.

Criticisms of Statistical Profiling

Statistics do not equal prediction, results may not be valid or reliable, difficult to replicate, issues distinguishing reported vs. recorded crimes.

Reported crimes

Crimes reported by the public.

Recorded crimes

Crimes officially logged by police.

General Concerns with Profiling

Not always scientific or standardized, many different methods and interpretations, may be irrelevant without clear offender motive/pattern, subject to bias and cultural differences.

Behavioral Investigative Advisors (BIAs)

Specialists who provide psychological advice to police.

Suspect Prioritization

Helps narrow suspects using behavioral/evidence-based predictions.

Linking Crimes (Case Linkage)

Determine whether multiple crimes are committed by the same person.

Investigative Interviewing

Help design interview strategies, assess credibility, and identify fruitful questioning areas.

Risk Assessment

Use crime scene behavior to evaluate future risk, especially in sexual homicide.

Geographical Profiling (GP)

Analyze crime locations to infer offender's likely residence or activity area.

Case Linkage

Search databases for crimes with similar behavioral features.

Crime Linkage Analysis

Determine if several offenses were committed by one offender.

Benefits of Crime Linkage Analysis

Pool information from multiple crime scenes, strengthens evidence and prosecution cases, efficient use of police resources.

Serial Offenders

A minority of offenders responsible for a majority of crimes, must have committed 2+ crimes of the same type.

Behavioral Distinctiveness

Unique patterns distinguish one offender from another.

Factors Influencing Crime Linkage Assumptions

Type of behavior, offender expertise, temporal factors.

5-Step Procedure for Linking Crimes

Collect data, identify significant features, classify features, compare MO + signature, write report.

ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristic) Analysis

Measures accuracy in testing crime linkage.

AUC (Area Under the Curve)

Ranges from 0 (inaccurate) to 1 (perfectly accurate).

Geographical Profiling (GP) Definition

A method analyzing crime locations to predict an offender's likely residence or anchor point.

Distance Decay

Offenders typically commit crimes close to home; crime likelihood decreases with distance.

Home within Activity Area

Offenders often live within the geographic region of their crimes.

Spatial Distribution

Finding the central point between crime sites.

Probability Distribution

Using mathematical models to assign probabilities around each crime site.

Accuracy of GP

The effectiveness of geographical profiling in locating offenders.

Rossmo (1990s)

Found offenders' homes within 6% of the search area, indicating high accuracy.

Canter et al.

Found an average hit rate of 11% for geographical profiling.

Accuracy conditions

Works best when there are ≥5 linked crimes, the offender hasn't commuted from outside the area, hasn't moved homes, and the target distribution is even.

Crime Types Using GP

Originally focused on serial murder, now includes rape, arson, robbery, burglary, auto theft, kidnapping, bombings, and fraud.

Higher accuracy crimes

Auto theft and street robbery have higher accuracy in geographical profiling.

Lower accuracy crimes

Commercial robbery and larceny have lower accuracy in geographical profiling.

Ameno et al. Study

Examined how GP is used by police internationally.

Profile creation

Most police create profiles individually rather than in teams.

Computerized systems

77 respondents used computerized systems, which were found to be the most accurate.

GP usefulness

Geographical profiling was found useful in over 50% of cases.

Theoretical Foundations of GP

GP draws from Environmental Criminology.

Crime Pattern Theory

Crimes occur in familiar environments, with offenders having an awareness space and activity space.

Routine Activity Approach

Crime occurs when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and an absence of capable guardians converge.

Rational Choice Perspective

Crime is a goal-oriented decision balancing costs versus benefits.

Circle Hypothesis

Offender's home often lies near the center of a circle drawn around their crime locations.

Marauders vs Commuters

Marauders live within the crime area while commuters travel from outside to offend.

Journey to Crime Theory

Examines how far offenders travel to commit crimes, with most committing crimes close to home.

ROC / AUC

Statistical test for accuracy of linkage decisions in geographical profiling.