Full Beliefs in Society Notes and Flashcards

What is religiousity?

• The quality of an individual's religious beliefs and experiences.

• The role that religion plays in society.

What is fundamentalism?

Religious militancy is used by individuals to prevent the erosion of their religious identities.

What is secularisation?

• The decline of religion.

• The loss of religion's influence over state issues.

What is ideology?

• Cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements.

• Includes patterns of inequality.

What are theistic beliefs?

The belief in at least one God.

What are new age movements?

• Movement that spread through the occult and metaphysical religious communities in the 1970s and 80s.

• Looked forward to a “New Age” of love and light.

• Offered a foretaste of the coming era through personal transformation and healing.

What is animism?

The idea that things found in nature, such as trees, rocks, and wind, have souls.

What is totemism?

The practice of associating groups of people with particular animals and plants.

What are the features of religion?

1. Belief in sacred beings.

2. Sacred and profane objects, places, and times.

3. Ritual acts are based on sacred and profane objects, places, and times.

4. Moral code with supernatural origins.

5. Prayer and other forms of communication with supernatural beings.

What are the definitions of religion?

• Substantive

• Functional

• Constructive

What does substantive mean?

• A belief system that has a supernatural being or God at its centre.

• The being is seen as superior, all-powerful, and inexplicable by science and the laws of nature.

What does functional mean?

• Portrays a concept as essential for social consensus and cohesion.

• Aids in human adaptation and societal survival by providing answers to existential questions.

• Explains the meaning of existence.

What does constructive mean?

• Determined by the members of a certain community and society.

• Interested in how a set of beliefs is acknowledged as a religion, and who has a say in the process.

What is a belief system?

An ideology or set of principles that helps us to interpret our everyday reality

What is religion as a closed belief system?

• Scientific knowledge is open to challenge and can often be disproven.

• Religion claims to have special knowledge of the absolute truth.

• Its knowledge is sacred and therefore cannot be challenged.

What is religion as an open belief system?

• When it is open to change.

• Herberg suggests that some religions are open to change and have diluted their belief systems in order to maintain relevance in modern society.

What is science as a closed belief system?

Kuhn believes that science as a discipline is a closed belief system due to the paradigms that dominate it.

What is science as an open belief system?

• It constantly opens itself up to criticism and testing.

• Constantly seeks to discover new knowledge.

According to Polyni, what are the self-sustaining beliefs?

• Circularity

• Subsidairy

• Denial of legitimacy to rivals

What does circularity mean?

Complete rejection of the claims of rivals to convince followers that they alone hold the truth.

What does subsidiary mean?

Get-out clauses to explain away criticisms or to deflect the argument.

What is denial of legitimacy to rivals?

Reject alternative worldviews by refusing to grant any legitimacy to their basic assumptions, e.g. creationism rejects evolutionists' knowledge 

What is the case study on Azande and witchcraft about?

• The Azande are trapped in their own belief system.

• Because they accept the idea of witchcraft, they cannot challenge it.

• Therefore, it is a closed belief system that cannot be overturned, even with evidence.

What is an ideology?

Cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality.

Why does religion differ from ideology?

• A religion may present a vision of a just society, but it cannot easily have a practical political program.

• The emphasis of religion is on faith and worship.

• Its appeal is to inwardness, and its aim is the redemption or purification of the human spirit.

• An ideology speaks to the group, the nation, or the class.

What is the marxist view of religion?

• A key conflict theory originates from the work of Karl Marx.

• Believes that capitalist society is based on inequalities between the 'bourgeoisie' (ruling capitalist class) and 'proletariat' (working class).

What are the marxist theorists?

• Gramsci

• Marx

• Althusser

What is the postmodernist view of religion?

• An approach that attempts to define how society has progressed to an era beyond modernity.

• Within this era, individuals are more likely to have a greater importance placed on science and rational thought as traditional metanarratives no longer provide a reasonable explanation for postmodern life.

What is the feminist view of religion?

• A perspective (and a movement) that recognises and opposes patriarchy (the male dominance of society).

• Argues for the rights of women.

• There is a range of different types of feminists, all of whom have different approaches to the issue.

What is the feminist theorist?

Oakley

What did Manheim say?

• His most enduring contribution was to the sociology of knowledge, which he defined as a theory of the social or existential conditioning of thought.

• Mannheim viewed all knowledge and ideas as bound to a particular location within the social structure and the historical process.

What are the core principles of science?

1. Objectivity

2. Reliability

3. Generalisation

What is a paradigm?

A particular and accepted set of thoughts and assumptions about the way things are and the way research should be done

What is falisification?

Any research that wishes to be considered scientific must subject its hypotheses to falsification, to testing, to trying to prove them incorrect.

What are the norms according to Merton?

• Communalism

• Universalism

• Disinterestedness

• Originality

• Scepticism

What is scientific knowledge according to interpretivism?

The study of human society must go beyond empirical and supposedly objective evidence to include subjective views, opinions, emotions, and values: the things that can't be directly observed and counted. These are phenomena that require interpretation.

What is scientific knowledge according to Marxists?

Knowledge is conceived as a product, not of passively perceiving individuals, but of interacting social groups. Scientific theories are not individually revealed but socially constructed

What is scientific knowledge according to Feminism?

They compel us to reconsider our most basic assumptions about the principles, methods, and aims of science. Representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work of men; they describe it from their own point of view, which they confuse with the absolute truth

What is scientific knowledge according to Postmodernism?

Sociology cannot and should not try to be scientific; theories that claim to be scientific are metanarratives: just big stories, with no real validity

According to Aldridge what are the transitions from religious to scientific explanations?

• Theological Stage

• Metaphysical Stage

• Scientific Stage

What does Sacred mean?

Rituals and people are regarded as having special significance and will be treated with awe and respect. For example, the ‘Shroud of Turin’ would be a sacred object, which is treated with respect and pilgrimages to this object are ways of strengthening religious beliefs. However, it must be noted that these objects may not be intrinsically special, but rather that a special meaning is attached to the object by the social group.

What does Profane mean?

Activities and people are ordinary and everyday, with no special meaning attached to them. For example, even though the Bible is a sacred text, it is a profane object that individuals use to strengthen their belief systems.

What is totemism?

The most basic religion, that the totemic principle represents in the minds of its adherents a universal, impersonal supernatural power (or life force), but that this force really represents the moral and epistemological power of society.

What is totemism?

The most basic religion, that the totemic principle represents in the minds of its adherents a universal, impersonal supernatural power (or life force), but that this force really represents the moral and epistemological power of society.

What is collective conscious?

The reason why and how individuals who are different can come together and form a society. This is because collective consciousness refers to a set of common beliefs, values, and behaviours that are found within a society.

What are cognitive functions?

Religion is the source of our ‘cognitive capacities’ (our ability to think and reason conceptually). In order to think, we need categories such as time and space. Religion provides the concepts and categories we need for understanding the world and communicating with others

What are values and meaning according to Parsons?

• Religion helps people cope with unforeseen situations and uncontrollable outcomes. He identifies two essential functions that religion performs in modern society.

• It creates and legitimates societies’ central values by sacralising them, which serves to promote a value consensus.

• It is a primary source of meaning by trying to answer the ultimate questions about the human condition, such as why people suffer and the good die young. Which enables people to make sense of these events and helps society maintain stability.

What is civil religion according to Bellah?

• It is the belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself. For example, ‘the American way of life’.

• Bellah argues that civil religion integrates society in a way that all the different churches and religions in America cannot. American Civil religion involves loyalty to the nation state and a belief in god. This is expressed through various symbols and rituals, such as the Pledge of Allegiance, the National Anthem, phrases such as one nation under God

What are psychological functions according to Malinowski?

Religion helps people to cope with emotional stress, which could undermine social solidarity. Malinowski suggests two types of situations where religion would perform
Where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and uncertain. For example, in the Trobriand tribe, lagoon fishing is not seen as dangerous or uncertain, so it requires no ritual; however, Ocean fishing is both dangerous and uncertain, so ‘Canoe Magic’ rituals are performed before setting out.

What is the evaluation of the functionalist view of religion?

• It ignores the negative aspects of religion, such as hate crimes, oppression of certain social groups and fundamentalism

• Hamilton and Dysfunction: Ignores the ways in which religion can be a source of social division, for example, in Northern Ireland between the Protestants and the Catholics

What is the main function of religion according to Marxism?

To provide social order that leads to stability in society

What did Engels argue?

Religion has a dual character and could act as a conservative force, but it was also possible for it to challenge the status quo and encourage social change

What is the legitimisation of inequality?

Religion legitimates or disguises exploitation and inequality. It creates false class consciousness in the working class and prevents revolution, maintaining the stability of capitalist society

What legitimates the power of the ruling class?

The ruling class legitimates their position and their success, and for the working class, it offers hope for reward in the afterlife

What is ‘Spiritual Gin’ Lein?

The ruling class used religion cynically to create a mystical fog which obscured reality for the working class

What is religion as a product of alienation?

Individuals create an all-powerful being which has control over them

What is Alienation?

When humans feel disconnected or estranged from some part of their nature or from society

What is suffering as a test of faith?

Some people think that it is God’s will that they are poor, either because he is testing their faith in him or because they have violated his rules. Many people believe that if they endure their suffering, they will be rewarded in the afterlife

What is existential security?

A state where the total existential risk across all time is low, such that humanity’s long-term potential is preserved and protected

What are promises of an afterlife?

The promise of an afterlife gives people something to look forward to. It is easier to put up with misery now if you believe you have a life of ‘eternal bliss’ to look forward to after death.

What is religion as the opium of the masses?

Disconnecting disadvantaged people from the here and now, and dulling their engagement in progressive politics

What does Marx mean by the ‘Opium of the masses’?

Religion acts like a narcotic, easing the pain of the poor and oppressed in a "heartless world." But like a narcotic, religion failed to cure the oppression.

What are the ways that religion is like opium?

1. Dulls the pain of exploitation rather than dealing with the cause of the exploitation, just like opium dulls the pain of an injury rather than healing the injury itself.

2. Religion gives a distorted world view; it can offer no solutions to earthly misery, but can offer the promise of an afterlife. Just as Opium can create hallucinations and distort the taker’s perspective.

3. The temporary high that the followers feel whilst taking part in the rituals mimics the temporary high achieved by taking opium.

What is the evaluation of religion as an ideology?

The beliefs and practices of that religion support powerful groups in society, effectively keeping the existing ruling class, or elites, in power

What is the evaluation of religion as a product of alienation?

Marx argued that religion is a form of alienation as individuals create an all-powerful being which has control over them. By doing so, individuals are giving up their right to make decisions, which in turn means they are denying themselves their true humanity

What is the evaluation of religion as the opium of the masses?

It reduced people’s immediate suffering and provided illusions which gave them the strength to carry on

According to Neo-Marxists what is religion a source of?

Social change

What do Neo-Marxists agree with Marxists about?

They share Marx’s analysis of capitalism

What do Neo-Marxists criticise Marxism for?

They do not share his belief in a communist revolution

What is the dual nature of religion according to Bloch?

Religion often inhibits change, but argues that it can also inspire protest and rebellion. Religion is an expression of ‘the principle of hope’- our dreams of a better life, containing images of utopia

What is the dual nature of religion according to Gramsci?

It has the ability to bring about change

What is religion as a force for social change, according to Maduro?

Religion has some independence from the ruling class and economic system, which means it can act as a revolutionary force for change

What is religion as a force for social change according to the liberation theology?

Seeks to apply religious faith by aiding the poor and oppressed through involvement in political and civic affairs

What is the case study for Father Camilo Torres?

Camilo Torres Restrepo (3 February 1929) in Bogotá, Colombia – 15 February 1966 in Santander) was a Colombian socialist, Roman Catholic priest, a predecessor of liberation theology and a member of the National Liberation Army (ELN) guerrilla organisation. During his life, he tried to reconcile revolutionary Marxism and Catholicism. He helped to organise student political protests

What is the evaluation if the neo-marxist view of religion?

• See religion as being socially significant in modern society despite the evidence of secularisation.

• Pope John Paul ll rejected the Liberation theory and told priests to focus on their religious responsibilities

What is the feminist view of religion?

Maintain the patriarchy and oppress women

What does Bruce say about feminism’s view of religion?

Women are more likely to join sects and cults because they offer compensators for three forms of deprivation

What are the three forms of deprivation?

• Organismic Deprivation

• Ethical Deprivation

• Social Deprivation

What is organismic deprivation?

Women are more likely to suffer ill health, so they will look to sects and cults for healing.

What is Ethical Deprivation?

Women tend to be more morally conservative and thus more likely to see the world in moral decline and share the views held by sects and cults.

What is social deprivation?

Sects and cults tend to attract the poorer groups in society, and women are more likely to be in poverty than men.

Who came up with the theory of maintaining patriarchy

Mary Daly

What is the theory of maintaining patriarchy?

The Christian tradition of God as father, and the maleness of God and Christ legitimise and reinforce male power in society- something she believed women could and should not identify with

What are examples of maintaining patriarchy?

• Portraying God as a man

• Restricting access for women to the top levels of the church.

• Depicting women in religious texts as bad influences or impure – e.g. Eve causing the fall from grace, Delilah taking Samson's strength, Mat Magdalene as a prostitute.

What is the evaluation of maintaining patriarchy?

Woodhead – Women use religion as a way to gain greater freedom and respect. She explains how the Hijab, which is seen in the West as a form of oppression, can also be a form of liberation as it allows them to enter the public sphere without fear of being considered immodest.

Who came up with the theory of second class believers?

Simone De Beauvoir

What is the theory of second class believers?

Religion tricks women into believing that they are equal to men in the eyes of god and will be rewarded for their suffering in the afterlife. She also believes that girls are socialised into worshipping a male god and therefore, are encouraged to unconsciously see men as superior

What are examples of second class believers?

• Jean Holm

• In segregated places of worship, women are often on the periphery of the place of worship, whereas men hold the central, more sacred places

• Women are not allowed to read from more sacred texts or touch them if they are menstruating (Islam)

What is the evaluation of second class believers?

In liberal protestant movements such as the Quakers and the Unitarians, there is a commitment to gender equality. For example, 1/3 of Unitarian ministers are female, in the Church of England, over 1/5 of the priests are female

Who came up with the theory of stained glass ceiling?

Karen Armstrong

What is a stained glass ceiling?

Women are often blocked from the top positions in mainstream churches. She studied the Church of England and found what she termed the ‘Stained Glass Ceiling’, meaning that women are blocked from progression to the top of the hierarchy

What is an example of a stained glass ceiling?

The vote to allow female Bishops in the Church of England was strongly opposed by traditionalists, who were very vocal in their opposition

What is the evaluation of stained glass ceiling?

• El Saadawi

• Suggest that it is not the religions that are practical, but the cultures in which they appear. She uses the Islamic religion and Arab culture to show this. In Arab culture, men hold all the powerful positions, which means that they are able to interpret the Qur’an to support their views

What is reflexivity?

The act of a researcher constantly reflecting on the extent to which they themselves are impacting their research and their findings

What is disembedding?

• A process associated with modernisation in which social relations have become increasingly spread across time and space, associated with a decline in traditional social ties

  • Giddens

What is cultural amnesia?

A dramatic decline in institutional religion

What is a pluralist society?

Power is open to everybody, and no one individual or group can have too much of it

What is lyotard’s theory of monopoly of truth?

There is no accepted monopoly truth

What is Lyon’s spiritual shoppers?

Religion has relocated to the sphere of consumption. While people have ceased to belong to religious organisations, they haven’t totally abandoned religion, instead, they’ve become ‘religious consumers’

What is the growth of new age movements?

They became dominant in the 1980s with a focus on developing spirituality through their belief systems. However, these movements are not as organised as mainstream religions, which can ultimately affect the lifespan of the movement