Studied by 3 peoplePiaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operations
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. develop sense of object permanence
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. do not pass conservation tests because they have centration and a lack of reversibility. egocentric: do not pass three mountains task.
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. difficulty about thinking abstractly or reasoning hypothetically
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
short-term memory (STM)
A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 to 30 seconds. holds around 5-9 chunks of information.
working memory
the manipulation of the short-term memory in order to use it for the task you are doing
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
a memory system that contains: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
explicit long term memory
also called declarative memory, it can be verbally stated and is knowing "what." episodic vs semantic
episodic long-term memory
memories of actual events or things you can visual the environment/situation of
semantic long-term memory
facts and knowledge, but you do not know how/why you know it.
implicit long-term memory
expressed behaviorally. knowing "how". procedural memory, classical conditioning, priming
procedural implicit long-term memory
skills, knowing how to do something
classical conditioning implicit long-term memory
associative learning, operant learning
priming implicit long term memory
exposure to things influences behavior
amnesia types
retrograde and anterograde
anterograde amnesia
cannot form new memories after the "accident/event"
retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve information before a particular date/time
encoding
the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
storage
retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
pulling memories out of storage. depends on cues/hints. similar context helps. for studying, if you study in a lot of different places, you have more retrieval cues
how to recall what you know
recall, recognition, reaction time
memory failures
transience, absentmindedness, blocking, memory misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence
transcience
forgetting over time
absentmindedness
lapses in our attention that result in memory failure
interference types
proactive and retroactive
proactive interference
old learning gets in the way of the new
retroactive interference
new learning gets in the way of the old
blocking
failure to recall something even though you know it, like when it is at the tip of your tongue
schema
organized knowledge structure/mental model that we've stored in memory
mnemonics
memory aids that use vivid imagery/stories to memorize long strings of info
Sperling's Iconic Memory Experiment
-people couldnt remember all of the letters in the display
-later he cued only one row and people could remember the entire row
-capacity is essentially unlimited, but sensory memory fades very quickly
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
flashbulb memory
highly detailed, vivid memory of an emotionally significant event
language
system that relates sounds or gestures to meaning
generativity
the desire, in middle age, to use one's accumulated wisdom to guide future generations
components of language
phonemes, morphemes, syntax
phoneme
smallest unit of sound, like bah vs pah
morpheme
smallest unit that carries meaning, like a word
syntax
sentence structure
theories of language development
behaviorist, nativist, interactionist
behaviorist: language development
language is learned through reinforcement and nurturing.
issues: parents respond to content more than grammar, it doesn't explain why kids know words they've never heard before, and speech errors reflect overgeneralization of grammatical rules
nativist: language development
innate mental structures that guide language acquisition. language is learned easier in critical period. noam chomsky
interactionist: language development
innate capacity for language interacts with experience. supported by creation of sign language by Nicaraguan children when growing up in a deaf school.
categorical speech perception
tendency to perceive as identical a range of sounds that belong to the same phonemic class
perceptual narrowing for phonemes
infants tune into the sounds of their native language. lose ability to see contrasts in other languages by 10-12 months.
early speech production
birth: crying
1 month: cooing
6 months: babbling
1 yr: words
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
language shapes thought
decision-making
evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
availability bias
items that are more readily in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently
framing effects
changing how an issue is presented can change people's decisions
loss aversion
people want to avoid losses more than they want to achieve gains
sunk-cost fallacy
decisions are tainted because of emotional investment we have accumulated
anchoring bias
tendency to fixate on initial information, even if that anchor is arbitrary or random, and insufficiently alter our judgements away from that anchor
confirmation bias
searching for confirming evidence instead of disconfirming evidence
developmental psychology
scientific study in changes of behavior from birth until death
major themes of developmental psychology
nature vs nurture
perceptual development: hearing
all sounds that reach the womb are low-pass filtered (no high frequencies). newborns prefer their mother's voice to other women, their mother's language to other languages, and books/songs they heard in utero
perceptual development: taste
mother's amniotic fluid is affected by what she eats. baby develops affinity for those foods.
infant testing methods
we must infer since they cannot tell us these things. infants will orient to stimuli they find interesting. they prefer stimuli they have heard/seen before (familiarization). if they are repeatedly exposed to stimulus to point of boredom, they will prefer novel stimuli (habituation).
Fantz experiment
infants will look at interesting stimuli longer than non-interesting stimuli.
three mountains task
child faces a model of 3 mountains and a doll is placed at a different angle. when told to draw/describe what the doll sees, the child describes what THEY see, not realizing the doll's view is different.
criticisms of piaget
underestimated children's abilities, vague in respect to processes/mechanisms of change, doesn't account for variability in performance, undervalues SES
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. also empathy
social development: delayed gratification
marshmallow test: 2/3 of 4 yr olds fail after 15 min. those who wait have shown higher education, SAT scores, better self-control, etc. Lower SES families have no association with outcome, possibly bc of scarce resources, so they take immediately.
social psychology
concerned with the way individual's thoughts, feelings, behaviors are influenced by others
social cognition
processes by which people come to understand others
how skilled are we in evaluating others?
very skilled. 57% correct in thin-slice judgements.
schema+stereotypes
schema: mental model/representation that organizes info about things/person/event
stereotype
stereotype: widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics bc of membership in a certain group
stereotype threat
fearing identifying with a negative stereotype about own group
stereotypes can be
inaccurate, overused, self-perpetuating, automatic
impression formation task
illusory correlation: when people estimate that they have encountered more confirmation of an association between social traits they have actually seen
ex. minority groups and negative events are attention-grabbing, so it skews our frequency perception
implications of impression formation task
schemas/stereotypes are often helpful, but can bias us
how to reduce negative impact of stereotypes
friendship, contact, stereotype results
attributions about behavior
attribution: inference about cause of person's behavior
fundamental attribution error
tendency to overestimate dispositional influences on our behavior, underestimate situational influences on someone else's behavior.
actor-observer effect, conformity
adjusting one's behavior to match what others are doing
obedience
following an authority figure
Solomon Asch Experiment
70% of subjects conformed to a wrong answer rather than giving a correct answer
what influences conformity?
presence of an ally, if the majority can hear your answer, how many of the majority there are
Milgram's Obedience Study
study of the phenomenon of obedience to an authority figure, examined the effects of punishment on learning (shock treatment for mistakes, 65% shocked dangerous amounts when ordered)
variations of Milgram
closeness of confederate, closeness of experimenter, respectability of environment, number of other teachers
Stanford Prison Experiment
Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.
Deindivualization
being in a group makes you lose self-awareness, making you do things you wouldn't normally do
bystander effect
failure to offer help to people in need when other bystanders are not doing anything either/when there are others present
Kitty Genovese
Murdered outside apartment- prompted to investigate bystander effect due to diffusion of responsibility
Latane and Darley
diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance
diffusion of responsibility
people feel a diminished sense of responsibility for their actions when surrounded by others acting the same way
pluralistic ignorance
majority of group members privately reject a norm but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, so they go along with it
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