PY 151 Exam 2 Study Guide: Ch. 6-7

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71 Terms

1

learning

the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience

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2

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; via conditioning or observation

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3

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

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4

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

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5

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment to produce pleasant or unpleasant consequences

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6

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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7

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events; how simple associations are formed

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8

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that doesn't naturally trigger a response ex. Bell

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9

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that triggers a reflexive response ex. Food

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10

Unconditioned response (UR)

a natural (unlearned) reflexive behavior elicited by the US ex. salivation in dog

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11

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus that elicits a response after being repeatedly paired with the US ex. Bell

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12

Conditioned response (CR)

the behavior that is caused by the CS (typically the same as the UR, but now it is paired with the CS) ex. Salivation in dog

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13

acquisition

period where organism connects neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus

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14

extinciton

decrease of CR when CS occurs but US is no longer presented; ex. ring bell over and over again but no longer present food

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15

spontaneous recovery

return of previously extinguished CR spontaneously after a rest period; Take a break from ringing the bell, then ring after several hours; dogs may start drooling again

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16

generalization

responding similar to stimuli that are similar to the CS

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17

discrimination

being able to distinguish between the CS and other, irrelevant stimuli

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18

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more probable if followed by a reinforcer or less probable if followed by a punisher.

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19

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

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20

reinforcement

anything that makes a behavior more likely (strengthens)

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21

reinforcer

a positive or negative stimulus used to create reinforcement

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22

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior

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23

positive reinforcement

add something to the environment to make behavior more likely

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24

negative reinforcement

remove something from the environment to make behavior more likely; not the same as punishment as it removes a punishing event

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25

primary reinforcer

unlearned reinforcers: naturally desirable (ex. food to remove hunger)

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26

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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27

continuous reinforcement

reinforcer provided every time behavior occurs; learn behavior faster, but stop quickly after reinforcement stops

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28

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

don't always provide reinforcement for behavior; learn behavior slower, but behavior continues longer after reinforcement stops

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29

fixed-ratio schedule

(type of intermittent reinforcement) reinforce after every X number of behaviors; e.g. free coffee after 10 cups

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30

variable-ratio schedule

reinforce after unpredictable number of responses; e.g. email spammers; type of intermittent reinforcement

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31

fixed-interval schedule

reinforce first behavior after a certain amount of time has passed; e.g. checking cookies to see if done; type of intermittent reinforcement

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32

variable-interval schedules

reinforce first behavior after unpredictable amount of time; e.g. see a message from a crush every once in a while when you check messaging app; type of intermittent reinforcement

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33

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior it follows; positive adds and undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior and negative takes something away to decrease behavior

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34

latent learning

may cognitively learn a new environment or information without reinforcement or effort

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35

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform behavior well for its own sake

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36

extrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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37

observational learning

learning that occurs from watching others and then imitating or modeling their actions

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38

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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39

memory

the nervous system's capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge (the persistence of learning over time); often incomplete, biased, and distorted

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40

information-processing model

compares human memory to computer's operation; involves encoding, storage, and retrieval

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41

encoding

input of information into the memory system; Labeling and coding sensory information from the environment

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42

storage

retaining information over time; The brain itself is changed by what is experienced, recording it as a memorable event

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43

retrieval

accessing or retrieving information from memory storage

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44

sensory memory

when a light, a sound, an odor, a taste, or a tactile impression leaves a vanishing trace on the nervous system (immediate, very brief)

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45

iconic memory

visual sensory memory

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46

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

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47

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as digits of a phone number while calling) before the information is stored or forgotten; aka working memory

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48

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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49

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory; info remains in working memory for 20-30 seconds unless you do something to retain it

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50

implicit memory

nondeclarative memory; memory that occurs without conscious awareness, often unable to put into words; includes memory acquired through classical conditioning and procedural memory (motor skills/habits)

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51

explicit memory

declarative memory; facts and events we can consciously know and declare; two types

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52

episodic memory

information about past experiences, including the time and place an event occurred; type of explicit/declarative memory

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53

semantic memory

knowledge of facts, regardless of personal experience; type of explicit/declarative memory

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54

chunking

organizing information into familiar, meaningful units

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55

mnemonics

associating new information with mental images (or other vivid and memorable tools—like songs or rhymes)

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56

spacing effect

distributed practice produces better long-term recall

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57

testing effect

repeated self-testing (e.g. taking practice tests and quizzes)

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58

rehearsal

two types: maintenance is simply repeating an item of information over and over; elaborative is encoding in a more meaningful way

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59

hippocampus

involved in temporarily storing new memories of facts and events

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60

amygdala

stores emotionally-charged memories; e.g. traumatic events or world changing events

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61

memory consolidation

memories are moved to other parts of the brain for long-term storage

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62

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in neuron's firing potential after repeated activation; The more one neuron excites another (by releasing neurotransmitters), the easier it is to activate the postsynaptic neuron in the future; lasting strengthening changes

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63

recall

memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier, e.g. remembering the name of a new acquaintance

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64

recognition

memory demonstrated by identifying items that have been previously learned, e.g. asking whether "Sarah" is the name of your new acquaintance

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65

relearning

memory demonstrated by being able to learn something faster the second time it is presented

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66

retrieval cue

Associations to an encoded memory, often stored along with the memory; activating that web of associations makes it easier to recall information stored in long-term memory

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67

priming

usually unconscious activation of associations to particular memories; E.g. Snow and slippery roads

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68

mood-congruent memory

easier to recall memories that are consistent with current mood

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69

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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70

proactive interference

when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new information

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71

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts your memory of older information

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