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learning
the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together; via conditioning or observation
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response.
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment to produce pleasant or unpleasant consequences
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events; how simple associations are formed
neutral stimulus (NS)
stimulus that doesn't naturally trigger a response ex. Bell
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
stimulus that triggers a reflexive response ex. Food
Unconditioned response (UR)
a natural (unlearned) reflexive behavior elicited by the US ex. salivation in dog
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
neutral stimulus that elicits a response after being repeatedly paired with the US ex. Bell
Conditioned response (CR)
the behavior that is caused by the CS (typically the same as the UR, but now it is paired with the CS) ex. Salivation in dog
acquisition
period where organism connects neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
extinciton
decrease of CR when CS occurs but US is no longer presented; ex. ring bell over and over again but no longer present food
spontaneous recovery
return of previously extinguished CR spontaneously after a rest period; Take a break from ringing the bell, then ring after several hours; dogs may start drooling again
generalization
responding similar to stimuli that are similar to the CS
discrimination
being able to distinguish between the CS and other, irrelevant stimuli
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more probable if followed by a reinforcer or less probable if followed by a punisher.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
reinforcement
anything that makes a behavior more likely (strengthens)
reinforcer
a positive or negative stimulus used to create reinforcement
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior
positive reinforcement
add something to the environment to make behavior more likely
negative reinforcement
remove something from the environment to make behavior more likely; not the same as punishment as it removes a punishing event
primary reinforcer
unlearned reinforcers: naturally desirable (ex. food to remove hunger)
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
continuous reinforcement
reinforcer provided every time behavior occurs; learn behavior faster, but stop quickly after reinforcement stops
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
don't always provide reinforcement for behavior; learn behavior slower, but behavior continues longer after reinforcement stops
fixed-ratio schedule
(type of intermittent reinforcement) reinforce after every X number of behaviors; e.g. free coffee after 10 cups
variable-ratio schedule
reinforce after unpredictable number of responses; e.g. email spammers; type of intermittent reinforcement
fixed-interval schedule
reinforce first behavior after a certain amount of time has passed; e.g. checking cookies to see if done; type of intermittent reinforcement
variable-interval schedules
reinforce first behavior after unpredictable amount of time; e.g. see a message from a crush every once in a while when you check messaging app; type of intermittent reinforcement
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior it follows; positive adds and undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior and negative takes something away to decrease behavior
latent learning
may cognitively learn a new environment or information without reinforcement or effort
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform behavior well for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
observational learning
learning that occurs from watching others and then imitating or modeling their actions
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
memory
the nervous system's capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge (the persistence of learning over time); often incomplete, biased, and distorted
information-processing model
compares human memory to computer's operation; involves encoding, storage, and retrieval
encoding
input of information into the memory system; Labeling and coding sensory information from the environment
storage
retaining information over time; The brain itself is changed by what is experienced, recording it as a memorable event
retrieval
accessing or retrieving information from memory storage
sensory memory
when a light, a sound, an odor, a taste, or a tactile impression leaves a vanishing trace on the nervous system (immediate, very brief)
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as digits of a phone number while calling) before the information is stored or forgotten; aka working memory
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory; info remains in working memory for 20-30 seconds unless you do something to retain it
implicit memory
nondeclarative memory; memory that occurs without conscious awareness, often unable to put into words; includes memory acquired through classical conditioning and procedural memory (motor skills/habits)
explicit memory
declarative memory; facts and events we can consciously know and declare; two types
episodic memory
information about past experiences, including the time and place an event occurred; type of explicit/declarative memory
semantic memory
knowledge of facts, regardless of personal experience; type of explicit/declarative memory
chunking
organizing information into familiar, meaningful units
mnemonics
associating new information with mental images (or other vivid and memorable tools—like songs or rhymes)
spacing effect
distributed practice produces better long-term recall
testing effect
repeated self-testing (e.g. taking practice tests and quizzes)
rehearsal
two types: maintenance is simply repeating an item of information over and over; elaborative is encoding in a more meaningful way
hippocampus
involved in temporarily storing new memories of facts and events
amygdala
stores emotionally-charged memories; e.g. traumatic events or world changing events
memory consolidation
memories are moved to other parts of the brain for long-term storage
long-term potentiation (LTP)
increase in neuron's firing potential after repeated activation; The more one neuron excites another (by releasing neurotransmitters), the easier it is to activate the postsynaptic neuron in the future; lasting strengthening changes
recall
memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier, e.g. remembering the name of a new acquaintance
recognition
memory demonstrated by identifying items that have been previously learned, e.g. asking whether "Sarah" is the name of your new acquaintance
relearning
memory demonstrated by being able to learn something faster the second time it is presented
retrieval cue
Associations to an encoded memory, often stored along with the memory; activating that web of associations makes it easier to recall information stored in long-term memory
priming
usually unconscious activation of associations to particular memories; E.g. Snow and slippery roads
mood-congruent memory
easier to recall memories that are consistent with current mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
proactive interference
when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new information
retroactive interference
new learning disrupts your memory of older information
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