PY 151 Exam 2 Study Guide: Ch. 6-7

learning

the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; via conditioning or observation

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment to produce pleasant or unpleasant consequences

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events; how simple associations are formed

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that doesn't naturally trigger a response
ex. Bell

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that triggers a reflexive response
ex. Food

Unconditioned response (UR)

a natural (unlearned) reflexive behavior elicited by the US
ex. salivation in dog

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus that elicits a response after being repeatedly paired with the US
ex. Bell

Conditioned response (CR)

the behavior that is caused by the CS (typically the same as the UR, but now it is paired with the CS)
ex. Salivation in dog

acquisition

period where organism connects neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus

extinciton

decrease of CR when CS occurs but US is no longer presented; ex. ring bell over and over again but no longer present food

spontaneous recovery

return of previously extinguished CR spontaneously after a rest period; Take a break from ringing the bell, then ring after several hours; dogs may start drooling again

generalization

responding similar to stimuli that are similar to the CS

discrimination

being able to distinguish between the CS and other, irrelevant stimuli

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more probable if followed by a reinforcer or less probable if followed by a punisher.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

reinforcement

anything that makes a behavior more likely (strengthens)

reinforcer

a positive or negative stimulus used to create reinforcement

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior

positive reinforcement

add something to the environment to make behavior more likely

negative reinforcement

remove something from the environment to make behavior more likely; not the same as punishment as it removes a punishing event

primary reinforcer

unlearned reinforcers: naturally desirable (ex. food to remove hunger)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcer provided every time behavior occurs; learn behavior faster, but stop quickly after reinforcement stops

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

don't always provide reinforcement for behavior; learn behavior slower, but behavior continues longer after reinforcement stops

fixed-ratio schedule

(type of intermittent reinforcement) reinforce after every X number of behaviors; e.g. free coffee after 10 cups

variable-ratio schedule

reinforce after unpredictable number of responses; e.g. email spammers; type of intermittent reinforcement

fixed-interval schedule

reinforce first behavior after a certain amount of time has passed; e.g. checking cookies to see if done; type of intermittent reinforcement

variable-interval schedules

reinforce first behavior after unpredictable amount of time; e.g. see a message from a crush every once in a while when you check messaging app; type of intermittent reinforcement

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior it follows; positive adds and undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior and negative takes something away to decrease behavior

latent learning

may cognitively learn a new environment or information without reinforcement or effort

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform behavior well for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

observational learning

learning that occurs from watching others and then imitating or modeling their actions

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

memory

the nervous system's capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge (the persistence of learning over time); often incomplete, biased, and distorted

information-processing model

compares human memory to computer's operation; involves encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

input of information into the memory system; Labeling and coding sensory information from the environment

storage

retaining information over time; The brain itself is changed by what is experienced, recording it as a memorable event

retrieval

accessing or retrieving information from memory storage

sensory memory

when a light, a sound, an odor, a taste, or a tactile impression leaves a vanishing trace on the nervous system (immediate, very brief)

iconic memory

visual sensory memory

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as digits of a phone number while calling) before the information is stored or forgotten; aka working memory

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory; info remains in working memory for 20-30 seconds unless you do something to retain it

implicit memory

nondeclarative memory; memory that occurs without conscious awareness, often unable to put into words; includes memory acquired through classical conditioning and procedural memory (motor skills/habits)

explicit memory

declarative memory; facts and events we can consciously know and declare; two types

episodic memory

information about past experiences, including the time and place an event occurred; type of explicit/declarative memory

semantic memory

knowledge of facts, regardless of personal experience; type of explicit/declarative memory

chunking

organizing information into familiar, meaningful units

mnemonics

associating new information with mental images (or other vivid and memorable tools—like songs or rhymes)

spacing effect

distributed practice produces better long-term recall

testing effect

repeated self-testing (e.g. taking practice tests and quizzes)

rehearsal

two types: maintenance is simply repeating an item of information over and over; elaborative is encoding in a more meaningful way

hippocampus

involved in temporarily storing new memories of facts and events

amygdala

stores emotionally-charged memories; e.g. traumatic events or world changing events

memory consolidation

memories are moved to other parts of the brain for long-term storage

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in neuron's firing potential after repeated activation; The more one neuron excites another (by releasing neurotransmitters), the easier it is to activate the postsynaptic neuron in the future; lasting strengthening changes

recall

memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier, e.g. remembering the name of a new acquaintance

recognition

memory demonstrated by identifying items that have been previously learned, e.g. asking whether "Sarah" is the name of your new acquaintance

relearning

memory demonstrated by being able to learn something faster the second time it is presented

retrieval cue

Associations to an encoded memory, often stored along with the memory; activating that web of associations makes it easier to recall information stored in long-term memory

priming

usually unconscious activation of associations to particular memories; E.g. Snow and slippery roads

mood-congruent memory

easier to recall memories that are consistent with current mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

proactive interference

when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new information

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts your memory of older information