AP Psychology Unit 0

Vocabulary flashcards covering the key terms of AP Psychology Unit 1, including research methods, statistical analysis, and ethical standards.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or prioritize information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Hindsight bias

The tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Meta-Analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A prediction that is worded in a way that allows it to be proven false.

Operational Definitions

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables, such as defining human intelligence as what an intelligence test measures.

Confounding Variables

Factors other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment; often referred to as the Third Variable Problem.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Scatterplot (Correlational Coefficient)

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship and the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation ($r$).

Central Tendency

A single score that represents a whole set of scores, typically measured by the mean, median, and mode.

Variation

How similar or diverse the scores in a distribution are, often measured by range or standard deviation.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a particular score.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; it includes specific percentages of distributions and can be analyzed for Skewness or Bimodal Distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Regression toward the mean

Evidence that occurs when more data is collected, showing the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Population

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience Sampling

Choosing individuals who are easiest to reach for a study.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Generalization

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to the larger population.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Placebo

An inert substance or condition that is administered instead of an active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Experimenter Bias

A process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome.

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency of research participants to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative (Structured Interviews)

A research method using non-numerical data, such as structured interviews consisting of a pre-determined set of questions.

Quantitative Measures (Likert Scales)

Research methods producing numerical data, such as Likert Scales where participants rate their level of agreement ($1$-$5$).

Peer Review & Replication

The process by which experts check research for quality and other researchers repeat the study to see if the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance; influenced by the Size of Sample.

Correlation and Causation

A foundational principle stating that correlation does NOT equal causation; just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

Self-Report Bias

A type of bias that occurs when participants provide incorrect information based on their own perceptions or memory.

Institutional Review Board

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

Animal Research Ethical Standards

Specific guidelines set to ensure the humane treatment of non-human subjects in psychological research.

Human Ethical Research Standards

The set of requirements for research involving humans, including Informed Consent, Protection from Harm, Confidentiality, avoiding Deception (or using Confederates), and Debriefing.

Informed Consent

A human ethical standard where participants are told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.