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BIOL 204 Exam 4
BIOL 204 Exam 4
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1
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what is nutrition?
the process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health and growth
2
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what is digestion?
it is the catabolic process that breaks down large food molecules to monomers (chemical building blocks)
3
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what is hydrolysis?
the enzymatic breakdown of any food molecule; it involves adding a water molecule to each molecular bond to be broken (lysed)
4
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what are the monomers of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids?
monosaccharides; amino acids; fatty acids; nucleotides
5
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what is absorption?
the process of moving substances from the lumen of the gut into the body
6
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what is metabolism?
the sum of all biochemical reactions in the body
7
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what is the main difference between catabolism and anabolism?
anabolism includes reactions that build larger molecules from smaller ones and catabolism is the breakdown of complex structures to simpler ones
8
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what is a nutrient?
a substance in food the body uses to promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair
9
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what is an essential nutrient?
those that are inadequately synthesized by body cells and must be ingested in the diet
10
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what are the six nutrient categories?
carbohydrates, protein, fats, water, vitamins, and minerals
11
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what are the four macronutrients?
carbohydrates, protein, fats, and water
12
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what are the two micronutrients?
vitamins and minerals
13
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what is the difference between macronutrients and micronutrients?
macronutrients must be consumed in relatively large quantities and micronutrients require small quantities of consumption
14
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what is meant by percent of daily caloric intake?
the recommended proportion of energy supply
15
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what percentage of your daily caloric intake should carbohydrates, proteins, and fats make up?
carbohydrates: 45-65%
proteins: 10-35%
fats 20-35% (
16
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what macronutrient should we eat most as a percentage of total calories?
carbohydrates
17
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what are calories?
the amount of heat (energy) needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius
18
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what is the difference between calories, Calories, and kilocalories?
1000 calories = 1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie
19
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what do Calories represent?
the ability of food to be converted by the body into energy
20
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what are the three energy-yielding nutrients?
carbohydrates, proteins, and fat
21
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how many calories are produced when one gram of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are fully oxidized in our body?
carbohydrates/ proteins: 4 kcal/g
fats: 9 kcal/g
22
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what is an empty calorie?
calories that contribute to your total caloric intake but supply little or no nutritional value
23
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why is alcohol not a class of nutrients despite is high-calorie content?
alcohol provides “empty calories”- it suppresses appetite but fails to provide other nutrients
24
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which of the following vitamins are water-soluble or lipid-soluble: A,B,C,D,E,K?
water-soluble: B, C
fat soluble: A,D,E,K
25
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which of the two vitamin groups, water-soluble or lipid-soluble, has a higher risk of accumulating in your body until reaching toxic levels? Why?
fat-soluble vitamins because they are stored in the body
26
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How are water-soluble vitamins absorbed and excreted from the body?
water-soluble vitamins are absorbed with water by simple diffusion and excreted in urine
27
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how is vitamin B12 absorbed from the intestines?
vitamin B12 binds to the intrinsic factor, which is secreted by the stomach’s parietal cells
28
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Is ferrous (Fe2+) iron or ferric (Fe3+) iron more absorbable?
ferrous (Fe2+) iron
29
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what is the function of ferroportin (FPN)?
FPN transports iron into the bloodstream
30
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where can you find ferroportin?
basolateral membranes of intestinal epithelia
31
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what is the function of transferrin?
transports iron all over the body
32
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what happens to iron released by macrophage degradation of senescent red blood cells?
it is recycled
33
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why does transferrin transport iron to bones and muscles?
myoglobin synthesis
34
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what is ferritin?
iron storage protein
35
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which organ represents the primary storage site for iron?
the liver
36
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what is hepcidin? what is its main goal, increase or decreased blood levels of iron? How does it achieve this?
iron absorption and mobilization are regulated by hepcidin; it decreases blood levels of iron by binding to ferroportin
37
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will an increase in blood iron increase or decrease the production of hepcidin by the liver?
increase
38
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will an increase in red blood cells increase or decrease the hepcidin production by the liver?
decrease
39
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In which two main organs does digestion of carbohydrates take place?
oral cavity and small intestine
40
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where does the digestion of carbohydrates start?
in the oral cavity
41
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what is a polysaccharide?
polymer of carbohydrates
42
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what enzyme is in saliva that digests polysaccharides?
salivary amylase
43
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why does the digestion of carbohydrates not continue in your stomach if the bolus from your mouth also carries some salivary amylase?
the acidic pH of the stomach inactivates amylase
44
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where does the amylase in your small intestine come from?
the pancreas
45
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which two brush border enzymes act on oligosaccharides composed of more than three simple sugars?
dextrinase and glucoamylase
46
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what are disaccharides? give three examples.
disaccharides are two units of carbohydrates; maltose, sucrose, and lactose
47
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where can you find disaccharides in the digestive system?
in the small intestine
48
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where are monosaccharides absorbed?
small intestine
49
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are monosaccharides absorbed into the blood or lymph?
blood
50
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what is the primary purpose of cellular respiration?
generate ATP in the presence of oxygen
51
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what is the equation for aerobic respiration of glucose?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
52
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what are the three consecutive pathways of glucose aerobic respiration?
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain
53
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what is the role of ATP?
energy carrying molecule that releases to fuel cell processes
54
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what is the role of NAD or FAD?
coenzymes that carry the extracted energy
55
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what molecules are the starting and end products of glycolysis?
converts glucose to pyruvic acid
56
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How is energy stored in the body?
energy is stored at carbohydrates and fats and converted into ATP when energy is needed
57
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how many pyruvates are obtained per molecule of glucose being oxidized in glycolysis?
two pyruvates
58
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what pathway does pyruvic acid enter in the absence of oxygen? and in the presence of oxygen?
in the absence of oxygen: pyruvate processing (pyruvic acid to lactic acid)
presence of oxygen: citric acid cycle
59
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what is pyruvate converted into to enter the citric acid cycle?
acetyl CoA
60
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is the citric acid cycle and Krebs cycle the same?
yes
61
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what is the final pathway to produce ATP in glucose metabolism?
electron transport chain/ oxidative phosphorylation
62
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what ion gradient is used to make ATP?
H+ (proton) gradient
63
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what is glycolysis?
conversion of glucose to pyruvic acid
64
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what is gluconeogenesis?
formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors
65
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what is glycogenesis, and when does it occur?
polymerization of glucose to form glycogen; occurs when cellular ATP reserves are high
66
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what is glycogenolysis, and when does it occur?
hydrolyzation of glycogen to glucose monomers; occurs when blood glucose levels begin to fall
67
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what is the general name of enzymes that act on proteins?
peptidases
68
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what enzyme begins the digestion of proteins and where is it located?
pepsin; stomach
69
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what enzymes from the pancreas digest protein? which are zymogens?
trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase (zymogens) and elastase
70
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what three brush border enzymes digest proteins?
carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, and dipeptidase
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what is the function of dipeptidase?
split dipeptides into separate amino acids
72
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what is contact digestion?
action of brush border enzymes
73
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where are brush border enzymes located?
small intestine (simple cuboidal epithelium?)
74
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what is nitrogen balance?
state in which the rate of N ingestion = rate of N excretion
75
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how do you get nitrogen for your body?
via proteins
76
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what happens when you have too little nitrogen in your body (state of negative nitrogen balance)?
increase of nitrogenous wastes in urine; muscle atrophy; protein catabolism
77
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what can cause a state of negative nitrogen balance?
nitrogen excretion>ingestion
78
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what is positive nitrogen balance associated with?
periods of growth (during adolescence and pregnancy)
79
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what three steps comprise the amino acid catabolic pathway?
transamination, oxidative deamination, keto acid modification
80
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how does the body get rid of the amino group of amino acids?
transamination; the amino group is switched from an amino acid to a keto acid (glutamic acid)
81
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how is urea produced in the body?
oxidative deamination; the amine group of glutamic acid is removed as ammonia and combined with CO2 to form urea
82
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what happens during keto acid modification?
the keto acids formed during transamination are altered so they can easily enter the citric acid cycle
83
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can you obtain energy from proteins?
yes; 4 kcal/ g
84
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what is the name of this functional group: -NH2?
amine group
85
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what is bile made of?
95% water
5% solute
* bile acids
* lecithin
* cholesterol
* bilirubin
* proteins
86
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what is the main component of bile?
water
87
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what are bile salts made of?
bile acids that are often bonded to glycine or taurine to increase water solubility (= conjugated bile acids)
88
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what is the role of bile salts in the digestive process
increase water solubility
89
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where is bile produced? from which molecule?
produced in the liver from cholesterol
90
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what are conjugated bile salts?
bile acids bonded to glycine or taurine
91
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what is the only way for the body to get rid of cholesterol?
in feces
92
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what percentage of bile salts are lost in the feces?
20%
93
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in what part of the intestine are bile salts recycled?
the ileum
94
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what is the role of emulsification?
bile salts in the duodenum break large fat globules into smaller fat droplets: increases surface area available to lipase enzymes
95
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what are miscelles?
aggregates of bile salts that forms a polar outer shell and a hydrophobic inner core
96
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what are triglycerides composed of?
three fatty acids and a glycerol
97
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which enzyme is mainly responsible for digesting triglycerides in the small intestine?
pancreatic lipase
98
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what is the function of micelles in the absorption of lipids?
since micelles are water-soluble, this allows for lipid digestion products to be transported into the small intestine
99
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why do lipids need to be transported in the core of the micelles to to enter the enterocytes?
lipids are not water-soluble and micelles are
100
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what happens to the fatty acids and monoglycerides once inside of the enterocytes?
the fatty acids and monoglycerides are converted into triglycerides
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