psych chapter 9 language and thinking

what are mental representations?

cognitive representations of the world - images, ideas, concepts, and principles - that form the foundation of thinking and problem solving

what types of conscious thought exist?

• propositional thought: verbal sentences in the mind (“im hungry”)

• imaginal thought: mental images (visual, auditory, tactile)

• motoric thought: representations of movement (ex: throwing a ball)

what are propositions?

statements that express ideas by combining concepts in a specific way (ex: “college students are intelligent”)

what are concepts?

basic units of semantic memory; mental categories for objects, activities, abstractions, and events that share essential features

what is a prototype?

the most typical or familiar member of a category; used as a reference point when categorizing objects

why are some category judgements faster than others?

objects closer to the prototype (ex: eagle as a bird) are categorized faster than atypical members (ex: penguin)

what is a language?

a system of symbols and rules for combining them to produce an infinite number of meaningful messages

why is language essential for humans?

it enables complex social interaction, learning, cultural transmission, conscious thought (inner speech), and adaptation

what is psycholinguistics?

the scientific study of how language is understood, produced, and acquired

why did language likely evolve?

to meet increasing social demands such as cooperation, division of labour, communication of customs, and knowledge transmission

what does it mean that language is symbolic?

symbols (sounds, words, signs) represent objects and ideas arbitrarily (ex: “dog” doesn’t resemble a dog)

what does it mean that language is structured?

it follows grammatical rules that govern how symbols are combined

what is grammar?

the system of rules for combining symbols into meaningful units

what is syntax?

rules governing word order in sentences (ex: subject-verb-object in English)

what is semantics?

rules that link symbols to meaning

what does generativity mean?

a finite set of symbols can generate an infinite number of novel messages

what is displacement?

language allows communication about things not physically present (past, future, imaginary, abstract)

what does it mean that language is dynamic?

languages evolve over time (ex: slang, new meanings)

what is surface structure?

the specific wording and organization of a sentence

what is deep structure?

the underlying meaning of a sentence stored in long-term memory

can different surface structures share the same deep structure?

yes (ex: “Sam ate the cake” vs “The cake was eaten by Sam”)

can one surface structure have multiple deep structures?

yes; this leads to ambiguity (ex: “visiting relatives can be dangerous”)

what is the smallest unit of sound in language?

phoneme - smallest unit of sound that changes meaning (English has 44), not individual letters

do phonemes have meaning?

no but they affect meaning when combined (dog vs log)

what are morphemes?

smallest units of meaning (words, prefixes, suffixes)

are morphemes the same as syllables?

no (ex: fans has 1 syllable but 2 morphemes)

what is the full language hierarchy?

phonemes → morphemes → words → phrases → sentences → discourse

what is bottom-up processing in language?

building meaning from basid sensory input (sounds → phonemes → words)

what is top-down processing in language?

using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret language

what is speech segmentation?

identifying where one word ends and another begins in continuous speech

how do we segment speech?

• knowledge of phoneme patterns

• context

• expectations (top-down processing)

what is pragmatics?

knowledge of how language is used appropriately in social contexts

why is pragmatics important?

it helps us interpret intentions and tailor speech to different audiences and situations

what is the Broca’s area responsible for?

speech production and articulation (left frontal lobe)

what is the Wernicke’s area responsible for?

speech comprehension (left temporal lobe)

what is aphasia?

impairment in language comprehension and/or production due to brain damage

why is language acquisition puzzling?

language is complex, children receive little formal instruction, yet master it rapidly

what is Skinner’s operant conditioning theory?

language is learned through reinforcement and shaping

what is the main limitation of Skinner’s theory?

parents usually correct meaning, not grammar

what is Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition?

language ability is innate and guided by a Language Acquisition Device (LAD): an innate mechanism containing universal grammatical rules that differentiates as the child is exposed to certain languages

what is LASS (Bruner)?

Language Acquisition Support System - social/environmental support for language learning

what happens in early infancy?

crying → cooing → babbling

when do first words appear?

around 12 months

what is telegraphic speech?

two-word sentences lacking grammar markers (18-24 months)

when is basic grammar mastered?

around 4-5 years

what is a sensitive period?

a time when the brain is especially receptive to language input

what evidence supports a sensitive period?

• extreme isolation cases

• deaf children learning sign language

• cochlear implant timing

does bilingualism harm cognition?

no; bilingualism often outperform monolinguals on attention and inhibition tasks

how does age of acquisition affect bilingual brains?

early learners show overlapping neural representations; late learns show separation

what is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

language influences how we think and perceive the world

do psychologists accept strong linguistic determinism?

no; language influences thought but does not determine it

what is deductive reasoning?

top-down reasoning where conclusions must be true if premises are true

what is inductive reasoning?

bottom-up reasoning that forms probable (not certain) conclusions

what are the stages of problem solving?

1. interpret the problem

2. generate solutions

3. test solutions

4. evaluate and revise

what is a mental set?

tendency to stick with previously successful strategies

what is functional fixedness?

inability to see alternative uses for objects

what is an algorithm?

step-by-step method guaranteeing a solution (but often impractical)

what is a heuristic?

rule-of-thumb strategy that is faster but not guaranteed

what is subgoal analysis?

breaking a problem into manageable steps

what is the representativeness heuristic?

judging probability based on similarity to a prototype

what is the availability heuristic?

judging likelihood based on ease of recall

what is confirmation bias?

seeking information that supports existing beliefs

what is overconfidence?

overestimating one’s accuracy or knowledge

what is creativity?

producing ideas that are novel and valuable

what is divergent thinking?

generating multiple, unconventional ideas

what is incubation?

solutions emerging after a break from conscious effort

what is a schema?

organized mental framework for understanding information

what is a script?

schema for a sequence of events

why are experts better problem solvers?

they have well-developed schemas stored in long-term memory

what is a mental image?

internal representation without sensory input

what is mental rotation?

ability to mentally manipulate objects in space

what is metacognition?

awareness of one’s own thinking processes

what is metamemory?

awareness of memory abilities

why is metacognition important for students?

it improves planning, monitoring, and learning outcomes